Religion

Religion: QUAKERISM (FRIENDS/QUAKERS). Protestant

2006-04-11T13:11:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity.QUAKERISM (FRIENDS/QUAKERS):

QUAKERISM (FRIENDS/QUAKERS)

This prophetic-mystical movement developed in England around George Fox (1624-91) and his teaching and preaching. His followers first called themselves “children of the light” or simply “friends” – based on Jesus' words to his disciples, “You are my friends if you do what I command you” (John 15:14) – and later corporately took the name of the “Religious Society of Friends”. “Quakers” was an early derisive nickname, associated with the tremblings of the Friends at their meetings. No longer considered derisive, this title is now also used by Friends of themselves.

Fox was convinced that the church* had become apostate, and even reformation “in root and branch” could not re-capture the authentic Christian community of the 1st century. So beginning again on early apostolic beliefs, Fox erected a church. It would depend directly on the risen Lord, and its members would function equally without mediation or rite and clergy but with the biblical gifts of the Spirit and the “inward light of Christ” – men and women equally under the direct headship of Christ. Friends' meetings for worship or for business held the holy expectancy that Christ would be in the midst wherever “two or three are gathered” in his name (Matt. 18:20), inspiring them to speak, enabling life to be transformed and empowering ministries to the world with the same self-giving love that he bore on the cross.

In 1676, Robert Barclay published (in Latin) Apology for the True Christian Divinity , which has never been displaced as the standard systematic treatment of Quaker theology.

The Quakers' early resistance in England to civil laws of religion that included oaths and marks of civil deference and to military service made the Friends targets of legal and popular oppression and imprisonment; more than 400 died from the lack of sanitation. Many fled to the American colonies. The majority sought refuge in Pennsylvania under William Penn (1644-1718), himself a Quaker. Elsewhere several Friends were persecuted; four were hung for religious dissension in Boston, 1659-61.

Social action is characteristic of the Friends. They “have been more concerned with the here and now than with the hereafter. They have sought in many different ways to improve the societies in which they live – locally, nationally, and internationally.” They look to the time when God's kingdom will come and his will be done; meanwhile, they are summoned “to exhibit to the world a kingdom mind-set, kingdom values and a kingdom life-style”. They are to be “the authentic counter-culture of a better way, the only way that holds true hope and the promise of life for humankind”. And they feel “the terrible pull of the unlimited liability for one another which the New Testament ethic lays upon them” (Douglas Steere).

Religion Universe: PENTECOSTALS (Protestant)

2006-04-11T13:09:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity.PENTECOSTALS:

PENTECOSTALS

The 20th-century Pentecostal movement affirms a post-conversion work of the Holy Spirit.* This work is designated baptism in the Spirit, generally understood as empowerment for mission* and ministry,* and is said to represent the restoration of the spiritual gifts listed in 1 Cor. 12:8-10 (see charism(ata) ). Of these gifts, speaking in tongues has particular significance for most Pentecostals as the initial evidence of baptism in the Spirit.

First-generation Pentecostals saw the Pentecostal movement as a revival with distinctive characteristics. It was the latter rain, a downpour of Holy Spirit in the last days before the parousia, comparable in power only to the spring rain of the New Testament church. It was the full gospel, completing the restoration of the gospel established by the Reformation and furthered by Wesleyan sanctification.* It was the “foursquare gospel”, manifesting Jesus as Saviour, Healer, Baptizer in the Holy Spirit, and Coming King. It was the apostolic faith, identical with the supernatural faith of the first Christians. It was Pentecostal, because in baptism in the Spirit each believer experiences a personal Pentecost, with God restoring the divine endowments of the church poured out at Pentecost* but lost through later apostasy and unbelief. These terms have influenced the name of many Pentecostal denominations.

Most Pentecostal histories hold that the Pentecostal movement stems from the ministry of Charles Parham, around 1900-1901 in the US; he first linked baptism in the Spirit with glossolalia. The movement's explosion beyond a local Holiness revival in Kansas and Texas resulted from the multiracial Azusa Street revival in Los Angeles, 1906-1909, under the black pastor William J. Seymour. Further impetus came from Parham's mission in Zion City, Illinois, in late 1906. Within two years of the Azusa Street outbreak, the Pentecostal movement had centres throughout the US, in many northern European countries, in India and China, and in West and South Africa. The following years saw its establishment in Latin America, especially in Brazil and Chile, and more missions in Africa and Asia.

The Pentecostal movement initially had a strong eschatological orientation (see eschatology ). It emphasized that Pentecost had to be preached throughout the world before the imminent return of the Lord. Many Evangelicals denounced the Pentecostal movement for unbridled emotionalism, spiritual deception and the subordination of scripture to experience. Strongest opposition was from among Holiness groups. They had been a matrix for Pentecostal concepts and provided most Pentecostal recruits in North America and Europe.

Despite this Evangelical rejection, the Pentecostal movement in America and Europe adopted conservative Evangelical doctrine, pre-millennial eschatology and a fundamentalist approach to biblical exegesis. In the USA this process was cemented by white Pentecostal membership in the National Association of Evangelicals, from its founding in 1943.

The Pentecostal movement's rapid spread led to the formation of Pentecostal denominations and independent ministries. We can distinguish four categories: (1) Holiness churches which add baptism in the Spirit as a third blessing after regeneration and sanctification, e.g. the black Church of God in Christ (1907), the Church of God of Cleveland, Tennessee (1907) and the Pentecostal Holiness Church (1911); (2) two-stage Pentecostals, mostly from a Reformed background, who profess baptism in the Spirit as a “second blessing”, e.g. the Assemblies of God (1914), the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada (1919); (3) the Oneness Church, which rejects the Trinity,* affirms a modalist Christology, and baptizes only in Jesus' name, e.g. the United Pentecostal Church (origins in 1914, formed in 1945); and (4) churches which restore the offices of apostle and prophet on the basis of Eph. 4:11, e.g. the Apostolic Church (1918).

Other major figures in the Pentecostal movement were Lewi Pethrus of Sweden, who strongly defended the autonomy of each assembly; Smith Wigglesworth, an itinerant British evangelist; Aimee Semple McPherson, American evangelist; Donald Gee, British educator; and Nicholas Bhengu, an African prophet. Missionary heroes include the American Lillian Trasher in Egypt, the Swedes Daniel Berg and Gunnar Vingren in Brazil, the Canadian C. Austin Chawner in Mozambique, and the English William Burton and James Salter in the Congo.

The Pentecostal movement has flourished among the poor and uneducated (hence the title of R.M. Anderson's study Vision of the Disinherited ). It appeals through its oral-gestural character, involving less conceptual forms of communication, such as hand-clapping, raised arms, dance, visions, dreams and prophecy, and through its participatory patterns, which characterize especially the earliest phases of the movement. Consequently, Pentecostal churches begin as bodies of fervent believers who exalt spiritual experience and wisdom over formal
education. Bible colleges and educational
institutions have followed only in the third and fourth generations.

Religion Universe: METHODISM (METHODIST) Protestant

2006-04-11T13:07:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity.METHODISM (METHODIST):

METHODISM (METHODIST)

“Methodist” originated as a pejorative designation by critics of the members of the Holy Club in Oxford, but John Wesley (1703‑91), its Anglican leader from 1729 and himself converted to serious Christian living in 1725, used it to mean a methodical pursuit of biblical holiness.*

Methodism, one of Protestantism's most influential evangelistic renewal movements, has become a worldwide communion. The current (2000) edition of the World Methodist Council Handbook states that worldwide Methodist membership now numbers about 38 million persons, whilst the Methodist world community, comprising both members and all those who come within the sphere of influence of the Methodist churches, now stands at over 75 million. Although the national churches have their own statements on doctrinal standards and church order, Methodism possesses a real unity* derived from the spiritual heritage which its principal founder, John Wesley, by his missionary preaching, and his brother Charles (1707‑88), by his colossal output of hymns and religious poetry, bequeathed to it.

John Wesley's missionary experience in the English colony of Georgia (1736‑37) was in many ways a failure, but it did provide him with the setting for shaping his concept of the small class under an appointed leader as the basic grouping for Bible‑centred Christian nurture, vital to the harmonious growth of the Methodist movement. With an increase of dependable collaborators, Wesley later constituted the itinerant pastorate in correlation with local Methodist societies, each composed of several classes. The itinerant pastorate bound these societies together in a form of living communion which avoided both the danger of fragmentation inherent in congregational church polity and the tendency towards static centralization in the Presbyterian churches (see church order ).

Returning to England from Georgia, Wesley experienced a second conversion on 24 May 1738. He received the grace to foresake reliance on his own efforts to attain perfection and to surrender himself totally, in loving trust, to the work of God's grace within him. Wesley thus became the instrument of divine power, which alone accounts for the stupendous missionary and pastoral achievement of his remaining 50 years as undisputed head of Methodism.

Religion Universe: LUTHERANISM (Protestant)

2006-04-11T13:06:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. LUTHERANISM:

LUTHERANISM

The church reform initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 at Wittenberg, Germany, developed into a movement, became established under political rulers chiefly in Central and Northern Europe, survived in Eastern Europe and elsewhere until granted civic toleration, and spread by massive emigration especially to North America but also to Australia, South Africa and Latin America. It also grew by missionary activity in Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the early 1900s Lutherans numbered about 80 million baptized persons. But at the start of the 21st century, the ravages of two world wars and the omission of the large number estimated within the membership of Germany's united churches has reduced the Lutheran total worldwide to an estimated 64 million.

Lutherans always considered themselves as part of the church* catholic and evangelical, bound to the scriptures, and confessing the faith* set forth in the three ecumenical creeds.* Although Lutherans vary among themselves in ways of worship – wherein the Lord's supper is central – and although they differ among themselves in forms of church organization – whether as national churches as in Scandinavia, or as Free churches as in most other parts of the world – Lutherans are doctrinally and legally identified by the same confession of faith which their political protectors had presented to the imperial diet at Augsburg in 1530. To whatever degree professed, the Augsburg confession (Confessio Augustana) and Luther's small catechism of 1529 (“the Bible of the laity”) have been the chief symbols of mutual recognition among Lutherans for more than 470 years.

Yet this basic concord has been no guarantee against disunity, whether born of doctrinal debates or ethnic, linguistic, cultural or other factors. Twin developments during the 20th century, however, have fostered Lutheran unity in new ways. One has been the creation of a global confessional fellowship, first through the Lutheran World Convention (LWC, founded in 1923) and then, since 1947, through the Lutheran World Federation* (LWF) – based in Geneva and now involving 133 member churches with approximately 60 million members in 73 countries. The other development has been Lutheran participation in the ecumenical movement, both in the World Council of Churches and in a broad range of bilateral dialogues (see dialogue, bilateral ), especially with the Roman Catholic Church since the Second Vatican Council.*

Religion Universe: EVANGELICALS (Protestant)

2006-04-11T13:04:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. EVANGELICALS:

EVANGELICALS

The terms “evangelical” and “evangelicalism” had scant use until Erasmus and others derisively aimed them at what they saw as Lutheran narrowness and fanaticism. Luther used the terms for all Christians who accepted the doctrine of sola gratia , which he saw as the heart of the gospel (evangelion) . The treaty of Westphalia (1648) denominated both the Lutheran and the Reformed churches “evangelical”. By 1700 the term seems to have become in Europe a simple synonym for “Protestant” or, in
German-speaking areas, “Lutheran”. In Protestant Britain, however, the religious awakening led by the Wesleys and George Whitefield seems to have been
called the evangelical revival from
around 1750. Slightly later, advocates of
revival in Britain, both in the Anglican
and Free churches, called themselves
evangelicals. Their trademarks were deep moral earnestness, commitment to strict personal piety, faithfulness in private and corporate devotion and vigorous philanthropic enterprise. Since the introduction of Protestantism in Latin America during the 1800s, its adherents have preferred to call their churches and themselves evangelicals (evangélicos) rather than Protestant.

In London, in 1846, some 800 Europeans and North Americans formed the Evangelical Alliance to counter the political and spiritual revival of Roman Catholicism then in progress and, more positively, to coordinate various Protestant enterprises in missions, publishing and social reform. Its nine conservative theological tenets summarize the contents of the historic Protestant confessions of faith, but its implicit understanding of Christianity in practice rested on the religious bases developed in early pietism and in the evangelical revival.

In British North America, the first great awakening (1730s and 1740s) had emphasized the necessity for a graciously given personal experience of redemption* in Christ, for personal piety, including social concern, and for confessional orthodoxy. The second great awakening (early 1800s) intensified the experiential element, reduced and simplified dogmatic requirements, slowly institutionalized social concern and made the
revivalistic mode normative for the 19th century. The formation of a branch of the alliance in the United States in 1867 simply reflected a context already practising the style of Christianity which the
alliance advocated.

Between about 1865 and 1900, however, many came gradually to understand the personal evangelical experience central to all evangelical thought and action as a personal moment of spiritual illumination. This understanding encouraged an internalizing of the evangelical experience. The old language remained, but by the 1920s social action and theological reflection were suffering benign neglect among Evangelicals. They sought only a “clean heart and right spirit”.

By about 1900, American Methodism had divided into three parties, each seeing itself as “evangelical”. The liberals, bent on social action and theological modernity, were evangelical but with the accents of the social sciences. The conservatives, including the Holiness movement,* were evangelical in the sense of the word before the civil war. The mainstream insisted on a highly individualistic and private faith,* which meant that traditional terms and doctrines might carry non-traditional connotations. Thus the Wesleyan tradition as a whole made the very idea of evangelical equivocal.

Calvin's progeny in the US had also divided into three major parties in the late 1800s. The conservative party, with its centre at Princeton, owed much to Charles Hodge and considered US evangelicalism, especially revivalism, theologically and culturally suspect. A mildly activist liberal party, rooted in the work of Nathaniel Taylor at Yale, spoke the language of Evangelicalism, but its deeper concern was to reconcile the Reformed tradition and modern thought and culture.* The revivalist party, which claimed the mantle of Charles Finney, Asa Mahan and William Boardman, was led at the end of the century by D.L. Moody, R.A. Torrey and J.W. Chapman. But these later revivalists, who now inherited the name “evangelical”, displaced the radical social concern and perfectionism of their predecessors with a very different agenda: “conversion”, understood first and last as an internal religious experience; maintaining the authority of the Bible as the inerrant divine revelation;* and restoring Evangelicalism as the normative form of Christianity.

From the late 1890s, increasing liberal critiques compelled these Evangelicals to explain their position theologically. Here, they found the methods and categories of the conservatives congenial, though they resisted the Calvinist dogmatism and rationalism of the conservatives' systems. A new coalition would soon produce a new definition of “evangelical” among the Reformed.

By the late 1910s, the Reformed tradition fell into civil war, and it drew other traditions in. On one side was the liberal tradition; on the other was the revivalist-confessional coalition, under the names “conservative”, “evangelical” and “fundamentalist”. The revivalist party became increasingly Reformed and less inclined to revivalism; the conservatives opened up to Evangelicalism.

Conservative Wesleyanism, still evangelical in the 19th-century sense, recognized that its theological method and understanding of the Bible had more in common with the spirit of liberalism than with that of the Reformed Evangelicals. But certain liberal theological conclusions contradicted their deepest commitments. Often, then, they rejected specific theological insistences of the Reformed Evangelicals but joined them in the war against the liberal secularizing of Christ, the Bible and the work of the church. And, little by little, they muted their commitment to social involvement, in part for fear of identification with the social gospel of the liberals. But most also rejected the name “fundamentalist”, especially as the theological bases and separatist ethos of fundamentalism became clear (see fundamentalists ).

Religion Universe: BAPTISTS (Protestant)

2006-04-11T13:02:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. BAPTISTS:

BAPTISTS

The modern Baptist movement began in 17th-century England. Separatists, unable to “purify” the Church of England, broke from the puritans and advocated separation from the state church (see church and state ). Among them were those who became convinced that infant baptism* was contrary to scripture. In 1607, to avoid persecution, a group led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys left Gainsborough, England, for Holland, where freedom of religion was flourishing. There, after further study of
scripture, the whole congregation rejected their infant baptism and were baptized as believers in 1608. In 1611 Helwys and ten others returned to London to establish
the first Baptist church on English soil.

During their stay in Holland these early Baptist believers had contact with the Mennonites,* who had also become convinced of the scriptural basis for believers' baptism. The Mennonites and others were called Anabaptists, because they were accused of re-baptism – a charge they rejected because they did not consider infant baptism to be scriptural baptism. Thus, although not directly related to the Anabaptists, Baptists count this 17th-century movement as part of their spiritual history, and the rise of the Baptist movement must be seen in this context. With the rediscovery of the Bible through the Reformation, many former Catholic priests became even more radical than Luther in calling for reform. Seeing the danger of the union of church and state, they called for separation not only from the church but also from the state. Many, such as Balthasar Hubmaier, Felix Manz and Conrad Grebel of Switzerland, were persecuted, and some were killed for their convictions. Other representatives of this Nonconformist tradition of opposition to state control and infant baptism include the Waldensians of Italy, who trace their origins back to the 12th century.

Out of this small group of English Baptists, who were part of a spiritual movement for renewal, separation of church and state, believers' baptism, and a purified, conscious adult commitment to personal belief in Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour, a worldwide movement has developed. Today there are 42 million Baptist believers in 160 countries; if one includes children and the larger community of worshippers, they would number at least 65 million more, making the Baptists one of the largest Protestant groups in the world.

Religion: ANGLICAN COMMUNION (Protestant)

2006-04-11T13:01:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. ANGLICAN COMMUNION:

ANGLICAN COMMUNION

The Anglican communion, as described by the Lambeth conference of bishops of 1930, is “a fellowship, within the one holy catholic and apostolic church, of those duly constituted dioceses, provinces or regional churches in communion with the see of Canterbury ”. These churches “uphold and propagate the catholic and apostolic faith and order as it is generally set forth in the Book of Common Prayer”. They are “particular or national churches and, as such, promote within each of their territories a national expression of Christian faith, life and worship”. “Anglican” refers not to language or culture but to common ancestry in the Church of England. Today, on account of the varied courses taken by prayer book revision, one has to omit the reference to the Book of Common Prayer, but in other respects the description stands.

The Anglican communion began its separate life in the reign of the English king Henry VIII (d.1547). In 1533-34 the Church of England defied the pope and unilaterally asserted its autonomy under God as a local expression of the universal church. This step hardly altered the outward appearance of the church; the old mass, for instance, remained its central liturgy throughout Henry's reign. But the principle of autonomy was an explosive force which led to more profound and extensive changes.

In the reigns of Edward VI (1547-53) and of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), the Church of England followed largely Protestant ways and separated itself from the Church of Rome in doctrine and ethos as well as in structure. The cornerstones of this settlement were the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, which rooted the church in the life of the one nation, brought the whole country (in theory) into the one liturgical usage, and stamped an Anglo-Saxon literary style on Anglican worship for future generations. The changes, of course, were originally intended only for the one Anglo-Saxon nation of England.

How did this singular development become a worldwide “communion”?* From the same period, a parallel church in Ireland also became separated from Rome and reformed by monarchical decrees, though the bulk of the Irish people refused to separate themselves from the pope. Another independent Episcopal church developed in Scotland by the late 1600s – not established by law as the Church of England was. During the 18th century this church devised its own eucharistic rites and thus demonstrated its substantial independence from the Church of England, while it retained profound family ancestries, resemblances and ties in common with that church.

From 1633 onwards, the bishop of London had charge of all Church of England congregations beyond the shores of Britain, whether in the American or other colonies, or on the continent of Europe. No bishop of London ever visited such overseas congregations. Thus when in 1776 the American colonies declared their independence from England, the Church of England congregations there faced a crisis. The church in America suffered severe setbacks in the immediate post-war years because of its former association with the British crown and the number of clergy and prominent laity who had been loyalists during the war. Nevertheless, the church soon established its own separate identity. While no longer wanting to be viewed as under the British through the bishop of London, they also did not want to lose the principle and practice of episcopacy.*

Thus, the Connecticut clergy elected Samuel Seabury to be their bishop, and sent him to London for consecration in 1783. The archbishop of Canterbury could not legally give consecration without exacting an oath of loyalty to George III. Not wanting to swear loyalty to the king, Seabury was consecrated instead in 1784 in Aberdeen by three Scottish bishops who had no state connection. Seabury was the first Anglican bishop consecrated for service outside the British Isles.

In 1789 the American Anglicans formed a general convention. The convention modelled its church constitution on the new civil one, authorized a separate prayer book, and declared themselves the autonomous “Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States” (“Episcopal Church” has now become the official alternate name). Thus another adult member of the communion came to be. In 1910 this US church's general convention initiated a commission to bring about a worldwide conference of “all Christian communions” for “questions of faith and order”, and later sent delegations to Europe and the Middle East to issue invitations, which in 1927 resulted in the first Faith and Order conference.

Slowly Anglicans in other nations or colonies followed the American pattern. They were settlers on plantations or belonged to companies with private chaplains, or they were the evangelistic result of Anglican voluntary overseas missionary societies of clergy and laity, such as the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (1699), the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1701) and the Church Missionary Society (1799).

The growing Anglican communities asked the Church of England for bishops. They were consecrated for Nova Scotia (1787) and for other Canadian provinces soon after, and then for Calcutta (1814), Jamaica (1824), Australia (1836), New Zealand (1841) and various parts of Africa from 1853 onwards. Because they were ministering in English colonies, these bishops and their dioceses were viewed as in some respects part of the Church of England, though their structural and organizational problems were very complex. In New Zealand the first bishop, Selwyn (1841-68), held a synod of church people, though such a move was impossible in England itself. In South Africa in the early 1860s Gray, the bishop of Cape Town, attempted to depose the bishop of Natal, Colenso, for heresy.* Colenso appealed to the judicial committee of the Privy Council in London, which in 1865 confirmed him in his episcopate.

At this Colenso decision, agitation arose in the Anglican churches around the world. The church in Canada proposed a common conference “of the members of our Anglican communion” to consider common problems; the archbishop of Canterbury would convene it. From this came the first Lambeth conference in 1867, with 76 bishops in attendance (Lambeth palace is the archbishop's residence in London). The conference took great care not only to tiptoe around the case of Colenso (who was not invited) but also to ensure that the status of the proceedings was not that of a deliberative synod, but only of a consultative conference.

Since 1867 Lambeth conferences have been held every ten years, except during the two world wars. The conference's authority remains consultative, not legislative or executive. The archbishop of Canterbury issues the invitations, and thus he decides in doubtful cases who are proper members. To this day, over against this consultative character of the Lambeth conferences, the self-governing churches of the Anglican communion individually enjoy an autonomy comparable to that which the Church of England claimed for itself at the Reformation.

Since the second world war more and more autonomous provinces (or churches, like the Church of England, comprising more than one province) have been created; today there are 38. In recent years inter-
Anglican structures or agencies have appeared: at present, the Anglican Consultative Council* and the biennial primates' meeting in addition to the Lambeth conferences.

It is very difficult to measure the strength of the Anglican churches. In England , because of the state establishment of the Church of England, all the baptized are traditionally viewed as Church of England persons unless they themselves indicate otherwise. This measure would indicate 20-30 million members, far more than the number who worship on Sundays (attendance is under 1 million). In other provinces, a roll of members may reflect actual church strength more accurately. Similarly, the ratios of bishops to congregations, bishops to clergy, and bishops to lay worshippers vary enormously, and one can gain no good comparison of strength from the numbers of bishops. Thus, for example, it was reckoned in the past that the US bishops made up too high a percentage of the Lambeth conference, but in recent decades the bishops of Africa, Asia and Latin America have caught up with them.

Religion: REFORMED/PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES

2006-04-11T12:59:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. REFORMED/PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES:

REFORMED/PRESBYTERIAN CHURCHES

Although “reformed” often refers to all churches which were shaped by the Reformation of the 16th century, there were already by the end of that century ecclesiae reformatae which distinguished themselves under that name from the Lutheran churches. The distinctions were both in doctrine and in form of church government.

These churches were often described as Zwinglian or Calvinist, names the churches themselves resisted, declaring that they sought to be reformed according to the word of God.* While grateful for the witness of the reformers, they were convinced that a reformed church is also semper reformanda (always to be reformed) in accordance with the divine purpose.

When the Swiss reformation spread to Scotland, great emphasis came to be laid upon achieving a polity which was both scriptural and effective for continuous reformation (see church order ). Presbyterianism was held by many to be such a polity, while courageous minority groups opted for a Congregational order, over against the authority of either bishop or council. From this historical development there emerged the churches of continental Europe called Reformed and those of Great Britain and Ireland called Presbyterian or Congregational/Independent.

Along the paths of exile and in the
settlements of trade and empire, the European movement steadily expanded throughout the world. The World Alliance of
Reformed Churches* reported, in 2001, 215 churches with well over 70 million members and adherents in 107 countries.

The distribution of these millions around the world is very uneven. The centres of strength, with numbers over a million each, are Australia, Canada, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, the Netherlands, the Republic of Korea, South Africa, Scotland and Switzerland. Yet strength is not only in numbers, and minority churches have a proud record. In Mediterranean countries, in Latin America, in Asia, Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific, churches with total membership only of thousands have endured under persecution and repression, often winning the respect of other Christians and of the surrounding community. One of the frequently used symbols of Reformed/Presbyterian churches is the burning bush; though burning, it was not consumed.

Theology

These churches did not intend at the Reformation or in their more recent foundings to begin a new church* or to teach new doctrine. They commonly affirm the doctrines of the Apostles'* and Nicene* Creeds; their confessions are attempts to expound the central themes of the scriptures. They have disagreed among themselves about the use of creeds* and confessions to test the orthodoxy of members and ministers, but they have always emphasized the importance of declaring the truth through word and sacrament.

Main emphases of Reformed teaching have been the sovereignty and authority of God,* the lordship of Jesus Christ* as the divine Saviour, and the centrality of scripture* as the rule of faith and life. In relation to these positive doctrines of divine rule and revelation,* many theologians of this tradition have also emphasized the total dependence of created humankind upon God, the utter lostness and depravity of sinners and the consequent need of a saving action by God which by prevenient grace* draws the sinner back to a right relationship with the Creator and Redeemer. If these emphases then become the basis for a logical extrapolation of doctrine, a harsh predestinarian view of salvation* and damnation can emerge. The developments within the Reformed family of churches have tended towards a return to the primary emphases on divine lordship and grace, but past doctrinal controversies are by no means over. They are often revivified when ecumenical discussion takes place.

Religion: REFORMATION (Protestant)

2006-04-11T12:57:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. REFORMATION:

REFORMATION

The ecumenical understanding of the Reformation has been dominated by a re-assessment of Martin Luther. In large part the concentration on Luther has been prompted by Roman Catholic historians who, far more than their Protestant counterparts, have identified the origins of the Reformation with Luther's religious crisis and subsequent career. While Catholic historians like Alexandre Ganoczy, Kilian McDonnell and Jacques Pollet have made substantial contributions to the study of Calvin and Zwingli, the principal energies of Catholic historians engaged in the study of Protestant origins have traditionally been devoted to an evaluation of Martin Luther.

Until the end of the 19th century, Catholic historiography was dominated by the essentially negative portrayal of Luther drawn by the Catholic polemicist Johannes Cochlaeus in his famous book Commentary on the Acts and Writings of Martin Luther (1549). Since medieval Catholic theology taught that heresy* is more a matter of will than intellect, more a defect of character than a failure of understanding, Cochlaeus attempted to account for Luther's heresy by identifying the defects of his character that prompted his apostasy from Rome. As Cochlaeus saw matters, Luther was a proud and self-centred man, driven by his appetites and utterly lacking in religious seriousness.

The attack on Luther's character was not altogether abandoned by Catholic historians in the early 20th century, as the writings of Jacques Maritain and G.K. Chesterton demonstrate. Nevertheless, the traditional picture of Luther's religious development was modified by the work of two Catholic scholars, Heinrich Denifle and Hartmann Grisar. In 1904 Denifle, a medieval historian then an archivist in the Vatican library, published a two-volume study of Luther's early theology entitled Luther and Lutheranism in Its First Development . Luther had claimed that he had been taught to regard the righteousness of God described in Rom. 1:16-17 as the punishing righteousness with which God justly punishes sinners. As Luther later recounted it, his theological breakthrough occurred when he realized that the righteousness of God in this passage refers, not to God's punishing righteousness (iustitia activa) , but to the righteousness with which God makes sinners just (iustitia passiva) .

Denifle examined a wide range of medieval commentaries on Rom. 1 and concluded that Luther's claim about the medieval exegetical tradition could not be sustained. Even though Luther alleged that all of his teachers identified the righteousness of God in 1:16-17 with God's punishing activity, Denifle could not find a single Catholic commentator who did so. Without exception they identified the iustitia Dei with God's reconciling gift to the sinner. It seemed therefore to Denifle that Luther's critique of Catholic theology rested in large measure on his ignorance of the very tradition he presumed to criticize.

Although Denifle had introduced the question of theological causes for the Reformation, he was not inclined to press his point in such a way as to mitigate the traditional Catholic attack on Luther's character. On the contrary, Denifle was only too happy to catalogue what he regarded as Luther's besetting sins: pride, spiritual negligence, intemperance and unchastity. He was even willing to accept the scurrilous rumour that Luther, like Francis I, was a victim of syphilis. “Luther,” Denifle cried, “there is nothing divine in you!”

Unlike Denifle, the Jesuit historian Hartmann Grisar was less interested in Luther's theological development than in his psychological profile. Grisar argued that Luther was psychologically unbalanced, haunted by an abnormal hatred of good works. The doctrine of justification* by faith alone, codified in the confessional books of the Reformation churches, originated out of Luther's compelling inner need to offer a theological rationalization for his uncontrolled lechery, drunkenness and gluttony. What Cochlaeus and earlier Catholic critics had attributed to flaws in Luther's character, Grisar was inclined to attribute to abnormalities in his psychological composition.

A new era in the ecumenical re-evaluation of the Reformation was inaugurated by the publication in 1939-40 of the two-volume study The Reformation in Germany by the Roman Catholic historian Joseph Lortz. Lortz broke decisively with the older Catholic tradition of scholarship that blamed the Reformation on flaws in Luther's character. He accepted the view, advocated by Luther himself, that, as an Augustinian friar, Luther had been a morally upright and decent man who had followed in scrupulous detail the rules and regulations of his order. Lortz was even willing to defend, against Catholic critics like Denifle, the unpopular proposition that Luther was a profoundly Christian theologian, whose theology of the cross and doctrine of assurance touched on deep themes in the gospel. From Lortz's perspective the tragedy of the Reformation could not be traced to moral grounds, as traditional Catholic historiography had argued, but to theological causes.

Lortz regarded the theology of Aquinas as the finest flowering of the medieval Catholic tradition. Unfortunately for 16th-century Europe, Luther was not trained at Cologne in the authentically Catholic theology of Aquinas, but at Erfurt in the “fundamentally uncatholic” theology of William Ockham. Luther studied the commentaries and writings of Gabriel Biel and Pierre d'Ailly, disciples of Ockham, whose theology, Lortz believed, reflected the unclarity and confusion that marked the later middle ages. Luther correctly perceived many of the problems inherent in Ockhamistic theology and made a genuinely Catholic protest against its distortions of the Catholic theological tradition. However, because Luther was not schooled in the theology of Aquinas, he went to what Lortz regarded as unwarranted extremes in his theological critique of Ockhamism and so lapsed into heresy. Nevertheless, even as a heretic, he was not guilty of moral turpitude, as Cochlaeus had argued, but only of theological subjectivity. From Lortz's perspective, the schism* in the Western church might have been avoided if only Luther had studied the balanced, Augustinian theology of Aquinas.

A new note in the Catholic re-appraisal of Luther was sounded by Otto Pesch in his massive study of the doctrine of justification in the theology of Aquinas and Luther. Unlike Lortz, who bemoaned the absence of the stabilizing impact of the theology of Aquinas on Luther, Pesch argued that Luther and Thomas held very similar understandings of grace.* They differed not so much in what they said as how they said it. Thomas wrote sapiential theology that described in an objective and detached way the unfolding of the creative and redemptive acts of God, whose being conditions, but is unconditioned by, the things he made. Luther wrote existential theology from the perspective of an engaged believer who stands in the presence of a living God of grace and judgment, who has called the believer by name. In Pesch's opinion, differences in theological style and method have led historians to over-estimate the differences between Luther and Thomas and to misunderstand and misjudge their substantial agreements. To recover an understanding of the theological agreements between Luther and Thomas, often hidden beneath the real, but far less significant, disagreements in style, would itself represent an important ecumenical step forward for Protestants and Roman Catholics.

Protestant historians, with some notable exceptions, have made fewer contributions to the study of Catholic reform in the 16th century than Catholic historians have to the study of Protestant origins. While Protestant historians have engaged in their own wide-ranging re-assessment of the major Protestant reformers, their principal contribution to the ecumenical re-assessment of the Reformation has centred in their re-evaluation of the theological and religious situation in the Western church on the eve of the Reformation. No longer content with a confessionally biased description of religious life in the later middle ages, Protestant historians from Reinhold Seeberg and Adolf Martin Ritter to Bernd Moeller and Heiko Oberman have attempted to reconstruct a more accurate picture of the milieu in which the Reformation was born. Especially important in this re-assessment has been the study of late medieval scholastic and mystical theology from Ockham and Thomas Bradwardine to Biel and John of Paltz.

Religion: INTRODUCTION Protestant(General)

2006-04-11T12:55:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity. INTRODUCTION (General):

INTRODUCTION (General)

Just as the disciples of Christ were only belatedly called Christians, so too those who supported the Reformation were called Protestants only from 1529 onwards. This was the date of the second diet of Speyer, when five princes of the holy Roman empire and 14 free cities “protested” against the decision taken three years earlier which had granted the princes (or cities) the right to decide as sovereigns what the religion of their subjects should be. In support of their stand they affirmed: “In matters which concern the honour of God and the salvation of our souls, every individual must stand alone before God and give an account.” Until then the Protestants had been called by different names – Lutherans, Evangelicals, Huguenots. The term “Protestantism” has more than a negative side to it. Rather, it is an affirmation of the freedom of faith.*

One might think that Protestantism arose out of a challenge to the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church, such as the sale of indulgences, the second-rate quality of the lower clergy or the dissolute life-style of the higher clergy. But these abuses had been denounced already for over a century. Hence, the Reformation would have been original only in succeeding, at least partially, where others had failed. But at a more profound level, the Reformation criticized the importation of the Roman tradition into the gospel, such as the doctrines of purgatory, Mariology, the veneration of saints and the power of the clergy. Even here Protestantism is not wholly original, for it owes something to humanism, which commended a return to the primary documents – in this case, the holy scriptures. Many humanists, however, did not become Protestants; the most famous example was Erasmus (1467-1536).

The development of Protestantism

The real originality of Protestantism lies in its fresh reading of the Bible, which led Martin Luther (1483-1546), an Augustinian monk and theologian, to claim that Christians are “justified”, i.e. they become righteous in the sight of God, not by their works and the merits which derive from these, but by God’s grace* alone, received in faith and not by means of works (see justification). Even if human beings or the individual conscience approves these works, God in his holiness cannot accept them as righteous, for human beings are sinners through and through, and their works are evil (see sin). Only the redeeming work of Christ is pleasing to God, and in his grace God “reckons to us” the righteousness of Christ. Our righteousness is therefore external (forensis), for we are not its source, which does not mean that it is unreal, for God does accomplish what he tells us and promises to us in his creative word. Having become good trees, by grace alone, we bear good fruits, in so far as we continue to have faith in Christ crucified and raised. In turn, this faith is not a work; it is a gift of God, awakened in us by the Holy Spirit.*

Protestantism thus developed a new understanding of faith. Faith is not primarily intellectual assent to doctrines which the church,* its councils and the pope formulate. First and foremost, faith is a personal bond of trust in Christ and recognition of the rightness of the judgments which God pronounces on sinful human beings. At least in the beginning, Protestants unanimously recognized the ancient ecumenical symbols or creeds,* and even drew up their own doctrinal confessions of faith: Augsburg confession (1530), confession of La Rochelle (1559 and 1571), Scots confession (1560), second Helvetic confession (1560), Westminster confession (1646), etc. But these confessions are not standards with absolute authority. Only holy scripture – in so far as, in Luther’s words, it is the bearer of Christ – has the force of the ultimate standard or court of appeal (norma normans); the confessions are standards only to the degree that scripture confirms them (norma normata).

Polemics naturally accused the Reformation of moral laxity because of its claim that works do not save. This censure is unfounded. While works cannot produce salvation,* they are nonetheless an essential to demonstrate that we have not received the righteousness of Christ in vain – or as the Heidelberg catechism (1563) says, to give evidence to God of our gratitude. This is the true basis of a rigorous Protestant ethic.

This ethic is all the more rigorous in that while Roman Catholic tradition progressively reduced good works to prayer, pilgrimages, charitable gifts, etc., Protestantism for both Luther and Calvin re-
established the dignity of work* in the world, hence Luther’s struggle against monastic vows, in which he saw a flight from Christian responsibilities in the world, the city and the family. Hence also Calvin’s doubtless bolder initiatives to encourage trade and industry. Calvin’s exegesis of relevant Old Testament passages clearly shows that they condemned loans at exorbitant interest rather than loans at interest rates that were intended to increase production. The clerical profession has no pre-eminent status for Christians; those who work to ensure a livelihood for their family, the prosperity of their town and help for the deprived are as worthy of respect as the minister entrusted with the proclamation of the word of God. One’s trade, according to Luther, is also one’s calling or vocation.*

This rehabilitation of secular work led certain sociologists and historians, especially Max Weber in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904-1905), to look for the origins of the capitalist quest in the Protestant ethic. But one must note, as Weber explicitly does, that it was the puritan spirit which above all provided the religious foundations and created the necessary mental attitudes for capitalist enterprise, at least in its beginnings. This thesis continues to find critics, who so far have managed only to clarify a thesis which in its essentials retains its full value.

Protestantism sought to reform the church from within but failed in this respect because of the intransigence of popes and the holy Roman emperor. The Protestant churches were compelled to constitute themselves as separate churches. But even before the schism* was completed, they evolved an ecclesiology different from Rome’s. For a start, they asserted that the pope and even councils could be mistaken, that scripture remains the supreme arbiter, that it has a clarity of its own and that its obscure parts are clarified by its more self-evident passages. This was in embryo the modern idea – accepted by Protestantism and in large measure by Roman Catholic theologians today – that there is a canon within the biblical canon.*

Furthermore, while the Roman Catholic Church maintained that there is no church except where there are priests ordained by a bishop who is within the apostolic succession and in communion with the pope as the successor of Peter, the Reformation maintained that the church exists wherever the word of God* is rightly proclaimed and where the sacraments* instituted by Christ (i.e. only the two sacraments of baptism* and the Lord’s supper, or eucharist*) are administered in agreement with the gospel. The church is a community of sinners who have been forgiven and, prompted by the Spirit, are brought together by the word of God.

Patently in its definition of the church, Protestantism gave pride of place to the event by which the people are brought together through the word, as compared with the institution as a socio-historical phenomenon. This is not to claim that Protestantism rejected all ecclesial institutions. As the schism moved towards its completion, it adopted a variety of institutional forms in its various denominations, but all of these institutions were marked by their collegial character and by the increasing role of the laity* in the government of the church (see church order).

Defining faith as a relation of personal trust in the Lord meant depriving the church of its power as an institution. No longer did the church mediate and dispense salvation, even as a secondary cause. Its one role is to proclaim and bear witness to the salvation which God effected in Christ, and to do so in the most varied ways – by preaching, administering the sacraments and declaring forgiveness (no longer itself doing the forgiving), and by mutual aid, service and the care of souls. Thus the church was made subordinate to the redeeming work of Christ, and ecclesiology depended on Christology. The church is a second reality. But it is not a secondary one, for it is and remains the Body of Christ, and all whom God has justified are brought into the church (in particular, by baptism); this body is called to grow in unity* and holiness.* Though the church has a divine foundation, it is not in itself a divine reality, and as an earthly institution it has its limitations. God alone knows who the true believers are; it is not up to the ecclesiastical institution to make this decision. This view explains why the practice of excommunication* eventually lost a great deal of its significance in the churches of the Reformation.

The ecclesiastical dispute with Rome has naturally been accompanied by a profound difference in regard to the ministry (see ministry in the church). That the ministry is an essential is not disputed in churches which resulted from the Reformation. But pastors are not priests, in that they have no special character or power which would distinguish them from laypeople. In principle, although pastors are ordained to their ministry, laypersons can carry out the same activities if the occasion arises and if they are called upon to do so by the constituted authorities. Already in 1520 Luther framed the Protestant doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, stating that all baptized Christians “can pride themselves on already being priests, bishops and pope”. But he added, “It is not appropriate for each person to fulfill the same office”, because of his concern for order and his respect for each person’s calling.

The question of the nature of the ministry remains a stumbling block in the ecumenical dialogues begun some decades ago between the Protestant churches and the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches. Difficulties over the mutual recognition of ministries remain a serious barrier in the quest for unity. The three confessions have been able to reach agreement on recognizing baptism, which in any case may be validly administered by a layperson, according to the Roman Catholic Church. But in regard to the Lord’s supper (or eucharist), there is no such recognition. According to present Roman Catholic teaching, there are certain values in the Lord’s supper celebrated in the Protestant churches, but the Lord’s supper is defective because it is not presided over by a minister considered validly ordained in the apostolic succession. Hence intercommunion* and a fortiori intercelebration are not possible. Rome does extend, within certain limits, eucharistic hospitality to baptized Protestants, but this is a one-way hospitality.

The current stage of the problem is found in connection with the 1982 WCC Faith and Order document Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry,* prepared by Protestant, Orthodox and Roman Catholic theologians. This document clearly shows that there has been some convergence on questions of ministry, but some responses still pose a continuing deadlock: Protestantism cannot give up its concept of the priesthood of all believers, nor can it acknowledge that its ministers have an intrinsic power to effect sacraments.

To sum up so far, one can define Protestantism in the three classic formulas: sola gratia (grace alone), sola fide (faith alone), sola scriptura (scripture alone) – to which Calvin liked to add soli Deo gloria (to God alone be glory).

Religion: Christianity, PROTESTANTISM (PROTESTANT RELIGION)

2006-04-11T12:53:00.000-07:00

Protestant, Religion Protestant, Protestant Religion. Christianity, PROTESTANTISM (PROTESTANT RELIGION):

PROTESTANTISM (PROTESTANT RELIGION)

Just as the disciples of Christ were only belatedly called Christians, so too those who supported the Reformation were called Protestants only from 1529 onwards.

The PROTESTANTISM topics are:

Introduction (General)
Reformation
Reformed/Presbyterian Churches
Anglican Communion
Baptists
Evangelicals
Lutheranism
Methodism
Pentecostals
Quakerism

Religion: EASTERN CATHOLIC CHURCHES

2006-04-11T12:51:00.000-07:00

Catholic, Religion Catholic, Catholic Religion. EASTERN CATHOLIC CHURCHES:

EASTERN CATHOLIC CHURCHES

These churches, with an estimated total membership of more than 9 million, originated in very diverse circumstances and live in various situations. What they have in common is full communion* of faith* and sacraments* with the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) around the bishop of Rome, while retaining various Eastern liturgical and canonical traditions inherited from the mother churches from which they were separated by their union with the church of Rome. They were disparagingly called Uniates* by the Orthodox or Oriental churches because of negative memories of their origins and of their type of relationship with Rome or with the Orthodox churches of the same traditions.

On the RC side, these union attempts were generally founded on the principle of the union-council of Florence (1438-45): complete respect of the diversity of traditions within the unity of faith. But no Eastern Catholic church in fact traces its origin back to this council. In the context of the Counter-Reformation, the awareness of the ecclesial character of the Orthodox churches became blurred in the RCC, and the attempts to restore unity between the two churches slowly gave way to the “return” of individuals or small groups to the RCC.

In Eastern Europe, the reunion with Rome of certain communities – at times with their bishops – was strongly influenced by the socio-political situation, especially the changes of frontiers between countries with Catholic or Orthodox predominance. The union of the Ukrainians (Brest-Litovsk 1595-96) concluded at a time when these regions were under Polish authority. The union of the Ruthenians (Uzhorod 1646) and that of a group of Romanians ( Transylvania 1700) took place within the Austro-Hungarian empire. Of lesser importance were the Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Slovak, Hungarian, Belorussian, Albanian, Russian and Greek Catholic churches. All belonged to the Byzantine-Slavonic tradition. The Ukrainian (about 3.7 million members), Ruthenian, Belorussian and Romanian Catholic churches were officially suppressed by force under communist regimes in the late 1940s; they survived only in their homelands underground or outside them, especially in Western Europe and North America.

In the Middle East the circumstances were very different. The Maronite church is a special case. Originating in the territory of Antioch (monastery of Beit-Marun) in the 4th century, it claims no historical consciousness of a formal break with Rome; and it renewed contact at the time of the crusades.* The Maronite church thus has no “Orthodox” counterpart, but belongs totally to the Catholic communion. All the churches of the Middle East lived in very difficult situations within the Ottoman empire . Under its law, as small minorities amid the Muslims they formed ethnic communities with their own separate legal status. Thus these churches readily welcomed the offer of help from Latin missionaries from the West, particularly since most of their members had no vivid awareness of an existing schism* with the RCC. The pastoral, intellectual and social activities of these missionaries slowly created, in different places, groups of laity and pastors who favoured union with Rome; eventually the union was proclaimed officially.

Rather than bringing about the union between the RCC and the respective other partners, the fait accompli was generally refused by the majority of the Orthodox, and new divisions resulted. With some important differences, this was the case with all the churches of the Middle East when some of their members became united with Rome: the Eastern Syrian or Nestorian tradition (Chaldeans, 1553), the Western Syrian tradition (Syrian Catholics, 1662), the Armenian tradition (Armenian Catholics, 1740), the Byzantine tradition (Greek Catholics or Melkites, 1724). Later on, the passage of individuals to the RCC led to the creation of Coptic Catholic (1895) and Ethiopian Catholic (1930) hierarchies.

Religion Universe: ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

2006-04-11T12:48:00.000-07:00

Catholic, Religion Catholic, Catholic Religion. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH:

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

Where one begins the history of the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) is itself a matter of theological judgment, fraught with serious ecumenical implications. Is Roman Catholicism (RC) a post-Reformation phenomenon, or is it the original form of the church?* Is “early Catholicism” to be found already in the New Testament, or is it an entirely post-biblical development? Catholic scholars, even very liberal ones such as Hans Küng, insist that Catholicism is present from the beginning, that the history of the RCC has its starting point within the NT rather than in the post-Reformation period.

If, indeed, one holds that RC is not simply a denomination within Christianity but its original expression, how does one deal with the historical fact that the earliest community of disciples gathered in Jerusalem, not in Rome? Indeed, the see, or diocese, of Rome did not even exist at the very beginning, nor did the Roman primacy.*

For many Catholics, the adjective “Roman” tends to obscure rather than define the reality of Catholicism. For them, the history of the Catholic church begins with Jesus' gathering of his disciples and with the eventual post-resurrection commissioning of Peter to be the chief shepherd and foundation of the church. Accordingly, it is not the Roman primacy that gives Catholicism its distinctive identity within the family of Christian churches but the Petrine primacy.

History

For the Catholic tradition, the classic primacy texts are Matt. 16:13-19, Luke 22:31-32 and John 21:15-19. Given their symbolism, the conferral of the power of the keys on Peter suggests an imposing measure of authority.* Yet this authority was not to be exercised in any absolute way, since from the beginning Peter is presented as consulting with the other apostles (see apostolicity ) and even being sent by them (Acts 8:14), and he and John act almost as a team (Acts 3:1-11, 4:1-22, 8:14). Nevertheless, the biblical images concerning Peter (fisherman, shepherd, elder, proclaimer of faith in Jesus, rock) continued in the life of the church and were enriched by additional ones: missionary preacher, great visionary, destroyer of heretics, receiver of the new law, gatekeeper of heaven, helmsman of the ship of the church, co-teacher and co-martyr with Paul.

According to tradition Peter was martyred and buried in Rome, the centre of the empire and eventually the centre of the RCC. During the first five centuries the church of Rome gradually assumed pre-eminence among all the churches. It intervened in the life of distant churches, took sides in theological controversies, offered counsel to other bishops on doctrinal and pastoral questions and sent delegates to distant councils. The see of Rome came to be regarded as a kind of final court of appeal, as well as a focus of unity* for the worldwide (“ecumenical”) communion* of churches. The correlation between Peter and the bishop of Rome became fully explicit during the pontificate of Leo I (440-61), who claimed that Peter continued to speak to the whole church through the bishop of Rome.

In the view of some other Christian communities, the RCC has its origin in the Edict of Milan (in 312, also known as the Edict of Constantine), whereby the church, now free from persecution, came to enjoy the status of an imperially protected and favoured religion. Thus we have the term “Constantinian Catholicism”.

By the beginning of the 5th century, German tribes began migrating through Europe without effective control. This movement, somewhat inaccurately called the barbarian invasions, lasted some 600 years. It changed the institutional character of Roman Catholicism from a largely Graeco-Roman religion to a broader European religion. The influence of Germanic culture on Catholicism was especially pronounced in the areas of devotion, spirituality and organizational structure. Church office became more political than pastoral, and imagery for Christ, the church and its leaders became increasingly militaristic.

When, at the beginning of the 8th century, the Eastern emperor proved incapable of aiding the papacy against the Lombards in northern Italy, the pope turned for help to the Franks. This new alliance led to the creation of the holy Roman empire, which began dramatically in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne. The line between church and state,* already blurred by the Edict of Milan, was now practically erased.

With the collapse of the Carolingian empire, however, the papacy fell into the hands of a corrupt Italian nobility. Only with the reformist pontificate of Gregory VII (1073-85) was the papacy's reputation restored. Papal prestige was even more firmly enhanced during the pontificate of Innocent III (1198-1216), who fully exploited the Gregorian teaching that the pope has supreme, even absolute, power over the whole church.

By the middle of the 13th century the classic papal-hierarchical concept of the church had been securely established, and the pope's power was said to embrace both church and state alike (the so-called two-swords theory). Newly elected popes were crowned like emperors, a practice that endured until suddenly discontinued by Pope John Paul I in 1978. Emphasis on the juridical, over against the communal, aspects of the church did not significantly subside, however, until the Second Vatican Council (1962-65).

The historical bond between the church of Rome and the church of Constantinople came apart through a series of gravely unfortunate and exceedingly complex political and diplomatic manoeuvres, starting with the excommunication* of Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Constantinople in 1054, and culminating in the fourth crusade (1202-1204) and the sack of Constantinople by Western knights. Two attempts at bringing the two sides back together – at the councils of Lyons in 1274 and of Florence in 1439 – did not have lasting results. Indeed, the climate began to change for the better only with the election of Pope John XXIII in 1958, with the Second Vatican Council* and then with the historic pilgrimage of Pope Paul VI in 1964 to meet Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras in Jerusalem,* the mother church of all churches.

By the beginning of the 14th century, other events had introduced a period of further disintegration of unity, reaching a tragic climax in the Protestant Reformation* of the 16th century (see Protestantism ). The confrontation between Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair over the latter's power to tax the church opened a wide breach between the papacy and the imperial authority. Then there were the scandalous financial abuses during the subsequent Babylonian Captivity of the papacy at Avignon, France (1309-78). There followed a rise in nationalism and anti-clericalism in reaction to papal taxes, and then papal authority itself came to be challenged on theological grounds by Marsilius of Padua and others. Conciliarism rose as a challenge to the prevailing monarchical concept of the church.

The Western schism* of 1378-1417 (not to be confused with the more serious and more enduring East-West schism between Rome and Constantinople) produced at one point three different claimants to the papal throne. The council of Constance (1414) turned to the new principle of conciliarism to end the schism, by asserting that a general council, not the pope, is the highest ecclesiastical authority. One claimant was deposed, a second resigned, and a third eventually died. Martin V was elected on St Martin's Day, 11 November 1417.

There were other, more immediate causes of the Reformation of the 16th century: the corruption of the Renaissance papacy of the 15th century, the divorce of piety from theology and of theology from its biblical and patristic roots, the negative effects of the Western schism and the rise of the national state – not to mention the powerful personalities of Luther, Calvin and Zwingli. The Reformation itself took different forms, so different that one should perhaps speak more precisely of reformations in the plural. The reformers of the right (Lutherans and Anglicans) retained essential Catholic doctrine but changed certain canonical and structural forms. The reformers of the left (followers of Zwingli and the Anabaptists) repudiated much of Catholic doctrine and sacramental life. The reformers nearer to the centre (Calvinists) modified both Catholic doctrine and practice but retained much of the old.

The Roman Catholic response, belated but vigorous, was given at the council of Trent* (1545-63), which was itself part of a broader movement known as the Counter-Reformation, conducted principally under the leadership of Pope Paul III (1534-49). The council proved to be the single most important event in the history of the RCC during the four centuries between the Reformation and the Second Vatican Council. By and large, the post-Tridentine RCC emphasized the doctrines, devotions and institutions that were most directly attacked by the Protestants: veneration of the saints,* Marian piety, eucharistic adoration, the authority of the pope and the bishops (see episcopacy ) and the essential role of ordained priests in the sacramental life of the church (see priesthood, sacraments ). Other important elements tended to be downplayed precisely because of their favourable emphasis by the Protestants: the centrality of Christ in theology and spirituality; the communal participatory nature of the eucharist* (“priesthood of all believers”) and the responsibility of the laity* in the life and mission* of the church.

Religion: Christianity, CATHOLICISM (CATHOLIC RELIGION)

2006-04-11T12:46:00.000-07:00

Catholic, Religion Catholic, Catholic Religion. Christianity, CATHOLICISM (CATHOLIC RELIGION):

CATHOLICISM (CATHOLIC RELIGION)

The Roman Catholic Church is the largest Christian body in the world. Over 1.1 billion people worldwide are considered members.

The CATHOLICISM topics are:

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
EASTERN CATHOLIC CHURCHES

Religion Universe: Taoism, YIN -YANG and THE FIVE AGENTS

2006-04-11T12:42:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. YIN -YANG and THE FIVE AGENTS:

YIN -YANG and THE FIVE AGENTS

Yin and Yang refer to the two opposite but complementary forces exercised by all things in the universe. From the previous articles, it is clear that Yin and Yang are already implied by the concept of Vital Breath. The Vital Breath of Oneness circulates; the Infinite is the Supreme Ultimate; the movement and stillness of the Supreme Ultimate give birth to Yin and Yang, which in turn generate the motions and changes of everything in the universe. The Five Agents are categories referring to the fundamental ingredients of the universe. They are named after wood, fire, earth, metal and water, but do not simply refer to these five concrete substances. Rather, they represent a basic framework or mental model by which all phenomena can be classified into five types. The Five Agents are the basic ingredients of the universe.

Yin-Yang is intrinsic to the universe

The source of Yang is Dao. The Laozi states that Dao gave birth to the primordial organic unity, from which are derived the two opposite forces, which interpenetrate each other, giving birth to the myriad beings. The backside of all beings is Yin while their front side is Yang; the Vital Breaths of Yin and Yang cross-penetrate until they reach a harmonious state. (<>) The generation of Yin and Yang by Dao creates the most fundamental forces of the universe, which are both in opposition and in unity. These Vital Breaths are both mutually opposite and mutually generating. At the same time, they are intrinsic to every thing. Ying-Yang's unity in opposition expresses itself in countless ways. Speaking of the human species, there are male and female; the human person has a spiritual (yang) and a material (yin) dimension; Spirit can also be divided into Yin Spirit and Yang Spirit; and the same goes for Vital Breaths. As for Heaven and Earth, Heaven is Yang and Earth is Yin; mountains are Yang and waters are Yin, etc. Mountains, water, grass, wood, earth, stones, ghosts, spirits, and so on all contain Yin and Yang aspects.

Religion: Taoism, COSMOGONY

2006-04-11T12:41:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. COSMOGONY:

COSMOGONY

Fundamental Difference Between the Daoist Theory of Universal Evolution and the Christian Concept of the Creation by God

The question of whether the universe has always existed as it does now is a most interesting, but also most perplexing one. Countless are those who, over the past thousands of years, have deeply pondered over this question and formulated what they considered to be the best answer, some going so far as to elaborate wonderful theories on the subject. Nonetheless, until today no consensus has emerged. Contemporary opinion tends to consider that the universe had a beginning, and that this beginning was a stage in the evolution of the universe -- looking at the universe as a whole, it has neither an absolute beginning nor an absolute end. Daoist Cosmogony has proposed a similar view of the universe for the past two thousand years. This theory of universal evolution is radically different from the Christian theory of the Creation of the universe by God. Daoism considers that universal evolution follows its own laws and is not the product of divine creation. Rather, it is the product of Spontaneous evolution under the control of the Great Dao. The highest divinity of Daoism, the Primeval Lord of Heaven, emerged during the evolutionary process, which he helps to push forward according to the circumstances. On the other hand, Christianity considers that God created the world out of absolute nothingness.

Initial speculations on the origin of the universe

Early on, Laozi had reflected on the origin of the universe. He considered that Heaven and Earth have not existed indefinitely. Dao preceded the formation of Heaven and Earth. The process of the generation of Heaven and Earth by Dao is resumed in the following formula: <> In other words, Dao generated the primeval unified whole, which divided into two opposing forces, whose interpenetration generated all beings. The two forces referred to by Laozi as the 'Two' are commonly considered to be designate Heaven and Earth. Later on, other Daoist theorists further reflected on the origin of the world and formulated systematic theories. These were discussed in the scripture The Source of Dao, which points out that before the formation of Heaven and Earth, there was nothing but limitless dark space, in which nothing existed. There was only Essential Vital Breath and Vital Breath of Spirit circulating everywhere. These Essential and Spiritual Vital Breaths refer to different functions of Dao, which formed the world and the myriad beings.

Religion: Taoism, ZHUANGZI (The Perfect Book of Nanhua)

2006-04-11T12:39:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. ZHUANGZI (The Perfect Book of Nanhua):

ZHUANGZI (The Perfect Book of Nanhua)

The Author of the Book of Nanhua :

Zhuangzi, named Zhou and styled Zixiu or Zimu, was a native of the kingdom of Song (i.e., northeast of present-day Shangqiu, Henan) during the Warring States period. He lived about 369-286 BC, and was a mandarin of Qiyuan, Meng. Poor but fond of Dao, he did not yearn for wealth or power. It is recorded in the Bibliographies of Laozi, Zhuangzi, Shenzi, Hanfeizi and Liezi in the Records of the Historian that Zhuangzi had extensive learning and wrote over one hundred thousand words. His works are based on Laozi's theories. They inherit and develop Laozi's "Dao", which follows the example of Spontaneity and thus is in every place. Moreover, they stress that things come into being and change by themselves and negate the existence of any controller. They put forward the ideas that "the Vital Breath exists in everything", and that "the birth of a man is the convergence of the Vital Breath, which forms life, and the breaking-up of the Vital Breath causes death". Hence Zhuangzi became the founder of his school of teachings. During the Wei, Jin, and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the doctrines of Laozi and Zhuangzi turned became the core of the teachings of Daoist Philosophy, and Zhuangzi was regarded as a Divine Man. In the second month of the first Tianbao year during the reign of emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty (AD 724), Zhuangzi was granted the title " Perfect Man of Nanhua ", and the Book of Master Zhuang written by him was titled the Perfect Book of Nanhua by imperial order. During the reign of emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty, he was granted the title "Perfect Sovereign of Numinous Subtlety and Original Pervasion".

Composition and Style:

The Book of Master Zhuang originally consisted of seven inner chapters, fifteen outer chapters, and eleven miscellaneous chapters, and the Book of Nanhua follows this composition. Scholars generally admit that the seven inner chapters were written by Zhuangzi himself and embody the magnificence of Zhuangzi's doctrines, spirit and writing style. The other chapters are elaborations and explanations, and some of them were written by Zhuangzi's disciples or supplemented by people of later ages. Now we briefly state the main theories of the seven chapters to show the essential content of the Book of Nanhua.

Religion: Taoism, LAOZI (Lao Tzu)

2006-04-11T12:37:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. LAOZI (Lao Tzu):

LAOZI (Lao Tzu)

Life of Laozi:

The chapter Bibliographies of Laozi, Zhuangzi, Shenzi, and Hanfeizi in The Records of the Historian records that "Laozi was a native of Qurenli of the town of Lixiang, in Ku County, in the State of Chu (i.e., to the east of Luyi, present-day Henan province). His family name was Li, his given name was Er, he was styled Boyang, and his posthumous title was Dan (which means the large flat outer edge of the ear). He was head of the imperial library of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty."

When Confucius went to Zhou and consulted Laozi about rites, Laozi said, "As for the person you mentioned, when his body and bones have dissipated, only his words continue to exist. A gentleman travels in a carriage when he is successful and walks downheartedly when he is not. I've heard that a good merchant hides everything and seems as if he has nothing, and a virtuous gentleman appears slow-witted. Get rid of your overbearing airs and excessive desires, of your posturing attitude and greed. They will do no good to you, and I tell you that just as it is." Confucius left and said to his disciples, "As for birds, I know they are able to fly; as for fish, I know they are able to swim; as for beasts, I know they are able to run. What runs can be stopped with nets, what swims can be stopped with fishing lines, and what flies can be stopped with arrows. As for dragons, I have no idea of their ascending to heaven by wind and clouds. Today I met Laozi, who's just like a dragon!"

Laozi cultivated Dao and its virtue. His learning focused on concealing oneself.

Having inhabited Zhou for long and seeing its decline, Laozi set off westward and arrived at the Pass (Hanguguan). Yin Xi, the official in charge of the pass, said, "Since you are going to live in seclusion, please write a book for me." So Laozi wrote a book of two parts, explaining Dao and its virtue in 5,000 words. Then he left, and it is unknown where he went.

Later, Zhuangzi wrote The Book of Nanhua to elaborate on Dao and its virtue. His significance to Daoist philosophy can be compared to that of Mencius in Confucian philosophy. Zhuangzi's contemporaries, such as Liezi, Huishi, Shendao, Tian Pian and Song Yan, carried forward Laozi's teachings. They made the learning of Laozi the origin of philosophical Daoism.

Laozi's Theories in the Qin and Han Dynasties:

The Bibliographical Records of The History of the Han Dynasty written by Ban Gu says, "People of the Daoist School probably originate from historians (maybe it indicates that Laozi was once a historian). They record successes and failures, what survives and what perishes, fortunes and misfortunes, the Dao of both ancient and contemporary times, and then they come to know the essentials and principles. Guard emptiness, and keep humble. This is the Art of Government. It is identical with Yao's conceding his throne to Shun and to what the trigram of Qian says in the Book of Changes. Humility itself leads to four benefits. (The Qian trigram combining Upper Earth and Lower Hill in The Book of Changes says, "It is the way of Heaven to diminish the full and augment the humble. Spirits and demons inflict calamity on the full and bless the humble. It is the way of men to hate the full and to love the humble. Humility in a position of honour makes one still more brilliant; and in a low position men will not (seek to) pass beyond it. Thus it is that the superior man will have a (good) issue (to his undertakings).") Humility is the advantage of sovereigns. As for those with no restraint, they do not care about rituals or kindness. Thus, it is said that purity and emptiness alone can help government."

Ban Gu summarizes the Daoist philosophy from the Confucian point of view and makes no subjective criticism. His summary shows a historian's manners, and Ban Gu makes a pertinent report. The books written by scholars of the Daoist School around that time which are recorded in the Bibliographical Records can be counted in the dozens. This fully shows that the theories of the Daoist School were already prosperous in the Qin and Han dynasties.

During the reign of emperors Wen and Jing at the beginning of the Han dynasty, the mother of the emperor, Lady Dou, who was interested in the Huang-Lao school, and Minister Cao Shen governed the country by using the theories of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. They reduced penalties and taxation and let the people recuperate and multiply. The people benefited and the state was well governed. Laozi's teachings had good effects at the beginning of the Han dynasty. This fully shows that they were not empty talk.

Religion: Taoism, DAO (TAO)

2006-04-11T12:35:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. DAO (TAO):

DAO (TAO)

The Meaning of Dao

Firstly, Dao is the eternally existing Origin of the world: it knows no limits in space or time. According to Laozi, it is an undifferentiated whole which precedes the existence of Heaven and Earth. It is empty, silent and formless; it grows independently and is inexhaustible; and eternally revolves without ever stopping. It is the Source of all beings. In the Laozi it is said:

"There was something undifferentiated and all-embracing,
Which existed before Heaven and Earth.
Soundless and formless, it depends on nothing external
And stays inexhaustible.
It operates with a circular motion
And remains inextinguishable.
It may be considered the mother of all things under heaven".

It is so ancient, and so fundamentally different from all other beings, that it does not have a name, and cannot be described in ordinary language. However, in order to describe it, we cannot but give it a name, so it is called 'Dao', or also 'Great'.

Another Daoist theorist, Zhuang Zhou, also said in the chapter "The Great Patriarch" of the Book of Master Zhuang, that "Dao is a reality that can be trusted even though it has neither behaviour nor form; it can be transmitted from heart to heart, but not by words; it can be obtained but not seen. It is its own root, and existed prior to Heaven and Earth. It created the Spirits and Divinities, and gave birth to Heaven and Earth. It is higher than the Supreme Ultimate yet is not high; it is under than the Six Directions yet is not deep; it precedes all creation yet is not old; it is farther than the remotest antiquity yet is not distant".

The above makes clear that Dao is the origin of all existence; it is both the first and last of all beings, and knows no limits in time.

Dao is omnipresent:

The above also touches on space: according to Zhuangzi, Dao is also beyond limitations of space. The ancient concept of the Six Directions includes the four cardinal directions as well as above and below - in fact encompassing all space. That Dao is 'Under the Six Directions' means that Dao is great beyond all limitations of space. Even earlier, Laozi had said that Dao permeates our surroundings, so that it is impossible to say if it is to our left or to our right. Dao is a continuous and unbroken existence: should you wish to greet it, you would not see its head; should you wish to follow it, you would not find its tail. In a nutshell, Dao is omnipresent, and is not limited to any defined physical space.

Religion: Taoism, HISTORY OF TAOISM

2006-04-11T12:33:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. HISTORY OF TAOISM:

HISTORY OF TAOISM

Rooted in the ancient Chinese systems of beliefs, influenced by primitive shamanism and observation of natural cycles, Taoism recognises Laozi as its founder and Zhuangzi as one of its most brillant representatives. Early Taoism developed as an original answer to the bitter debates during the philosophically fertile time of the Hundred Schools of Thought, corresponding to the Warring States period. It was a time of seemingly endless warfare and chaos. This turbulent era gave rise to a kind of naturalistic quietism in accordance with the "process" of the universe: Tao. Action through inaction (wei wu wei), the power of emptiness, detachment, receptiveness, spontaneity, the strength of softness, the relativism of human values and the search for a long life, are some of its preferred themes.

Taoism is rooted in the oldest belief systems of China, dating from a time when shamanism and pantheism were prevalent. Elements of primitive Taoist thought include the cyclic progression of seasons, growth and death of sentient beings and their endless generation and questions about the origin of life. Observation of natural processes lead to divination pratices where the operator tries to detect opportunities in natural phenomenons (like crackles made in bones).

The oldest Chinese scripture is said to be the I Ching, a compilation of readings based on sixty-four hexagrams. The hexagrams are combinations of eight trigrams or gua, (collectively called bagua), resulting in sixty-four possible combinations. Laozi was intimately familiar with the I Ching, and the Tao Te Ching shows that he was profoundly inspired by it.

Religion : Taoism, TAOISM (DAOISM)

2006-04-11T12:31:00.000-07:00

TAOISM (DAOISM), Religion TAOISM (DAOISM), TAOISM (DAOISM)Religion. TAOISM (DAOISM):

TAOISM (DAOISM)

Daoism is China's indigenous traditional religion; its name stems from 'Dao' being its highest object of faith.

The core of its belief is that by engaging in a process of Cultivation and Refinement, man can attain to a state of Immortality.

Daoist religion reveres Laozi as its Founder; its primary scripture is Laozi's Book of Dao and its Virtue.

Daoism has formed itself gradually over the ages, building upon the ancient Chinese worship of Heaven and Ancestors as its foundation, taking Daoist philosophy as its primary ideological source, absorbing concepts from the Yin-Yang, Mohist, Confucianist and Legalist schools, and adhering to the essential path of cultivation of the Magic and Immortality and Huang-Lao traditions.

Since its formation in the middle of the Eastern Han dynasty (25 - 220 AD), Daoist religion has undergone phases of formation, reform, flourishing and development, division into sects, and gradual decline, over a period of almost two thousand years.

Over the course of its long history of development, it has exercised a deep influence on Chinese government, economy, philosophy, literature, art, music, chemistry, medicine, health cultivation, breathing arts, and gymnastics, as well as China's ethnic relations, ethnic psychology and social customs.

Daoism has also accumulated a large quantity of scriptures and documents, temples and monuments, and sculptures and stone inscriptions, adding to the cultural treasury of the Chinese people and making significant contributions to the progress of human civilization.

Author: Jiang Sheng
Translator: David Palmer
Source: http://www.eng.taoism.org.hk/
(Courtesy of: Taoism Culture & Information Centre)

Similarities and differences between religious and philosophical Daoism
Religious Daoism 1 is the indigenous religion of China, which holds longevity and immortality as its highest object of faith. It advocates attaining Longevity 2 and Immortality 3 through a process of Nourishing Life 4 , Cultivation and Refinement 5 , and the practice of virtuous conduct, in order to escape death and reach eternity. Philosophical Daoism 6 is a current in the history of Chinese philosophy, while religious Daoism is a religion. However, the two are intimately related. The core concept of Daoist thought, `Dao' 7 , was inherited and transformed by Daoist religion, while Laozi, the founder of Daoist philosophy, was incorporated into religious Daoism as the `Supreme Venerable Sovereign' 8 divinity. The Book of Dao and its Virtue 9 and the Book of Master Zhuang 10 , classics of Daoist philosophy, became `Perfect Scriptures' 11 of religious Daoism. The inheritance and transformation of elements of Daoist philosophy by Daoist religion shows both the links between the two as well as the differences between them. We can say that the value orientations of religious and philosophical Daoism are fundamentally different

According to later scholars, the development of Daoist philosophy can be divided into three stages: Lao-Zhuang Daoist philosophy 12 of the pre-Qin era; Huang-Lao Daoism 13 of the Qin and Han dynasties; and the 'Science of Mysteries' 14 Daoist philosophy of the Wei and Jin dynasties. After the Wei and Jin, `Philosophical Daoism' became a thing of the past, as Daoist philosophy came to be completely replaced by Daoist religion. Therefore, after the Jin dynasty, references to the `Daoist School' 15 actually refer to the Daoist religion, when not specifically designating the philosophical Daoism of the pre-Qin, Qin, Han, Wei or Jin dynasties. We can thus say that after the Jin, religious Daoism took the place of Daoist philosophy in terms of social role and function.

Religion: Buddhism, THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION

2006-04-11T12:28:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, Religion Buddhism, Buddhism Religion. THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION:

THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION

Buddhism began by encouraging its practitioners to engage in smrti (sati) or mindfulness, that is, developing a full consciousness of all about you and within you -- whether seated in a special posture, or simply going about one's life. This is the kind of meditation that Buddha himself engaged in under the bodhi tree, and is referred to in the seventh step of the eightfold path.

Soon, Buddhist monks expanded and formalized their understanding of meditation. The bases for all meditation, as it was understood even in the earliest years of Buddhism, are shamatha and vipashyana.

Shamatha is often translated as calm abiding or peacefulness. It is the development of tranquility that is a prerequisite to any further development. Vipashyana is clear seeing or special insight, and involves intuitive cognition of suffering, impermanence, and egolessness.

Only after these forms were perfected does one go on to the more heavy-duty kinds of meditation. Samadhi is concentration or one-pointed meditation. It involves intense focusing of consciousness.

Samadhi brings about the four dhyanas, meaning absorptions. Buddha refers to samadhi and the dhyanas in the eighth step of the eightfold path, and again at his death. Dhyana is rendered as Jhana in Pali, Ch'an in Chinese, Son in Korean, and Zen in Japanese, and has, in those cultures, become synonymous with meditation as a whole.

Basic Meditation

The most basic form of meditation involves attending to one's breath.

Begin by sitting in a simple chair, keeping your back erect if you can. The more traditional postures are the lotus position, sitting on a pillow with each foot upon the opposite thigh, and variations such as the half lotus (one foot on the opposite thigh, the other out in front of the opposite knee). This is difficult for many people. Some people kneel, sitting back on their legs or on a pillow between their legs. Many use a meditation bench: kneel, then place a little bench beneath your behind. But meditation is also done while standing, slowly walking, lying on the floor, or even in a recliner!

Traditionally, the hands are placed loosely, palms up, one on top of the other, and with the thumbs lightly touching. This is called the cosmic mudra, one of a large number of symbolic hand positions. You may prefer to lay them flat on your thighs, or any other way that you find comfortable.

Your head should be upright, but not rigid. The eyes may be closed, or focussed on a spot on the ground a couple of feet ahead of you, or looking down at your hands. If you find yourself getting sleepy, keep your eyes open!

Beginning meditators are often asked to count their breath, on the exhale, up to ten. Then you begin back at one. If you loose track, simply go back to one. Your breath should be slow and regular, but not forced or artificially controlled. Just breathe naturally and count.

Religion: Buddhism, THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE

2006-04-11T12:27:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, Religion Buddhism, Buddhism Religion. THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE:

THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE

Prologue

To begin, I would like to express my pleasure to be here today, on this auspicious occasion of the first international recognition and celebration of Vesak at the United Nations. Though I wear the robe of a Theravada Buddhist monk, I am not an Asian Buddhist but a native of New York City, born and raised in Brooklyn. I knew nothing about Buddhism during the first twenty years of my life. In my early twenties I developed an interest in Buddhism as a meaningful alternative to modern materialism, an interest which grew over the following years. After finishing my graduate studies in Western philosophy, I traveled to Sri Lanka, where I entered the Buddhist monastic order. I have lived in Sri Lanka for most of my adult life, and thus I feel particularly happy to return to my home city to address this august assembly.

Vesak is the day marking the birth, enlightenment, and passing away of the Buddha, which according to traditional accounts all occurred on the full-moon day of May. Ever since the fifth century B.C., the Buddha has been the Light of Asia, a spiritual teacher whose teaching has shed its radiance over an area that once extended from the Kabul Valley in the west to Japan in the east, from Sri Lanka in the south to Siberia in the north. The Buddha's sublime personality has given birth to a whole civilization guided by lofty ethical and humanitarian ideals, to a vibrant spiritual tradition that has ennobled the lives of millions with a vision of man's highest potentials. His graceful figure is the centerpiece of magnificent achievements in all the arts -- in literature, painting, sculpture, and architecture. His gentle, inscrutable smile has blossomed into vast libraries of scriptures and treatises attempting to fathom his profound wisdom. Today, as Buddhism becomes better known all over the globe, it is attracting an ever-expanding circle of followers and has already started to make an impact on Western culture. Hence it is most fitting that the United Nations should reserve one day each year to pay tribute to this man of mighty intellect and boundless heart, whom millions of people in many countries look upon as their master and guide.

Religion: Buddhism, MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM

2006-04-11T12:24:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, Religion Buddhism, Buddhism Religion. MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM:

MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM

There are many schools and practices in Buddhism. They can be roughly grouped into three types:

Theravanda or Southern Buddhism

Theravanda (Doctrine of the Elders) is the dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia.
It's followed by 100 million in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos.

Its scriptures are preserved in Pali, an ancient India language closely related to Sanskrit. Theravanda (lesser vehicle) is the only surviving representative of the historical Nikaya branch.

The Pali Canon, is the collection of agamas or nikaya sutras.

The nikaya sutras are considered to be the oldest of the surviving types of Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Religion: Buddhism, UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM

2006-04-11T12:22:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, religion Buddhism, Buddhism religion. UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM:

UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM

Sakyamuni has said: “It is so large that it has no exterior, and so small that it has no interior.”

It means that at the Tathagata level, in terms of largeness, you can’t see the edge of the universe, and in terms of smallness, you can’t see the smallest microscopic particle of matter.

Sakyamuni has also talked about the theory of 3,000 boundless universes.

His opinion was that in our Milky Way galaxy (our universe) there are 3,000 planets that have beings.

He has also added that a grain of sand has 3,000 boundless universes in it, so a grain of sand is like universe

Religion: Buddhism, PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM

2006-04-11T12:20:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, religion Buddhism, Buddhism religion. PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM:

PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM

The Triple Gem
Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the Triple Gem, Three Jewels or Triple Jewel.

These are:

The Buddha: Awakened one, enlightened one. The original nature of the heart; the attainment of Nirvana.
The Dharma (Dhamma): The body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The nature of reality.
The Sangha: Community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. Also could be translated as awakened community.
It is impossible to escape one's karma (The universal principle of cause and effect, action and reaction which governs all life).

The one, who is seeking to become enlightened, commits by pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before.

.

The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths with the Eightfold Path is the way to obtain Salvation for Gautama Buddha which comes with Nirvana after enlightenment. It brings Salvation from the sufferings on earth, and, most important, salvation from the curse of reincarnation.

Dukkha: The condition of all existence is suffering.
Samudaya: The cause of suffering is attachment or desire (tanha) rooted in ignorance.
Nirodha: The end of suffering is Nirvana.
Marga: The path to end suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.
The Noble Eightfold Path
Enlightenment and Nirvana is attained by meditation and by following the path of righteousness in action, thought, and attitude.

Panna (Wisdom):

Right Understanding (Samma ditthi)
Right Thought (Samma sankappa)

Religion: Buddhism, BUDDHA

2006-04-11T12:18:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, religion Buddhism, Buddhism religion. BUDDHA:

BUDDHA

Siddhartha Gotama was born into a royal family in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas just inside the borders of modern-day Nepal around 6 BCE.

He was born the son of a Rajan (King, Chieftan) of the Sakya (Lion) clan of the Kshatriya, or warrior caste in Kapikvastri on the Indian-Nepalese border. Sakyamuni, means “the sage of the Sakyas”.

Accounts of his life were passed down by oral tradition and first written a few hundred years after his death. Therefore, they are a great number of legends that surround his birth and existence:

“Queen Maya (Sakyamuni‘s mother) was going to her father's home to prepare for the birth with the help of her mother. She stepped off her chariot in the Lumbini Gardens and held the branch of a flowering tree to rest. In that instant, Siddhartha emerged from her right side without any help. The infant walked seven steps each in four directions and lotus flowers sprouted from where his foot touched the earth. Seven days later Queen Maya died.”

It was predicted at Buddha birth that he would become either a world ruler or a world teacher.

Therefore his father, King Suddhodana, who wished Siddhartha to succeed him as ruler, tried his best to shelter him from all misery and anything that might influence him toward the spiritual path.

At the age of 16, he was married to his wife Yasodharã

Religion: Buddhism, BUDDHISM

2006-04-11T12:16:00.000-07:00

Buddhism, religion Buddhism, Buddhism religion. BUDDHISM:

BUDDHISM

Buddhism is a religion and a philosophy.
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, after Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.

The word comes from 'budhi', 'to awaken'.

It has its origins about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama (Sanskrit: Siddhartha Gautama), known as the Buddha (also: Tathagata, "the one who has come thus"), was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of 35 while sitting under a Bodhi tree ("tree of wisdom").

Buddhist morality is deeply rooted by the principles of harmlessness and moderation (The Middle Way).

The characteristics of Buddhism are: 1) Mental training focuses on moral discipline (sila), 2) Meditative concentration (samadhi), and

3) Wisdom (prajñā).

Religion : Judaism, THE TEN COMMANDMENTS

2006-04-11T12:14:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion. THE TEN COMMANDMENTS:

THE TEN COMMANDMENTS

Moses is the founder of the Jewish people, and the leader who freed them from slavery in Egypt. Moses protected the Jews from the wrath of God, and negotiated with God on their behalf.

The Bible clearly sees Moses as the founder of the faith, Abraham is the founder of the nation. Moses is the author of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (also called The Pentateuch or the Torah ), and the establisher of Jewish law in the Mosaic code . When Moses was 80, God spoke to him on Mount Sinai through a burning bush and ordered him to go back to Egypt and lead the Hebrew people out of slavery.

Three months after leaving Egypt, Moses went up the mountain alone and stayed there for 40 days, during which time God gave him the Ten Commandments carved on stone tablets, and taught Moses various other laws.

After seeing that the Israelites had gone astray during his absence and his brother Aaron had made the Golden Calf, Moses broke the tablets (Exodus 32:19).

God subsequently commanded Moses to carve two other tablets like the first (Exodus 34:1)

Religion: Judaism, SCRIPTURES

2006-04-11T12:11:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion.JUDAISM SCRIPTURES:

JUDAISM SCRIPTURES

- The TORAH, Tanakh (law, teaching):

It is the most sacred book, the first five books of the Bible (the Pentateuch)... but Torah may also apply to the whole of the Hebrew Bible, called "Tanakh", an acronym formed from the Hebrew words for the Bible's 3 sections: "Law" (Torah), "Prophets" (Nevlim), and "Writings" (Hagiographa).

We do not have the "original documents"; what we have today mainly are the "Greek Bible", the "Hebrew Bible", and the "Dead See Scrolls":

The Greek Bible, the Septuagint:

From the third century before Christ, is the oldest document we have: It is the Greek translation made in Alexandria by a Group of 72 rabbis (6 from each one of the 12 Tribes of Israel), and hence the name of "Septuagint" given to the translation. It has 46 books, like the Catholic Bibles, and it was the common version of the Bible among the Jews well after Christ; the one used and quoted by the Evangelists and Apostles when they wrote the New Testament, and the one mostly quoted in the Talmud. It was then translated to Syriac in the 1st century AC, to Coptic in the 3rd century AC, and to Latin in the 4th century AC (the "Vulgata").
The Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic Text: Written in the 6th to 10th centuries after Christ, by a Group of scholars from Babylon and Palestine , the Karaites, introducing vowels and accent signs to the original Hebrew. It has 39 books, and it is the one mostly used by Protestants.
The Dead See Scrolls: Very important, because they are in Hebrew, dating from 300 "before Christ", when the oldest Hebrew Bible we had, the Masoretic, is from 700 "after Christ"... it pushed back the curtain 1,000 years on the earliest known surviving Hebrew manuscript of the Old Testament.
Only from the Cave IV of the Qumran finds, there are fragments of 382 manuscripts. Every book of the Bible, except Esther, is represented, and same books by many copies. Seven scrolls are in Israel, at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. But most of them are in Jordan at the Palestine Archeological Museum of Jerusalem.
All manuscripts are with a remarkable similarity to those Greek and Hebrew we had!... and they have been qualified as "the most important discovery ever made in Old Testament manuscripts", also very valuables in New Testament studies.

Codex:

The Greek and Hebrew manuscripts, are kept in several "Codex": The "Codex Vaticanus", the oldest, from the 4th century AC, in the Vatican Library, Rome . In the British Museum of London are kept the "Codex Sinaiticus" of the 4th century AC, and the "Codex Alexandrinus" of the 5th century. In Cambridge , the "Codex Bezae" of the 5th century AC.

There are also fragments of the Bible kept in "papiry" in Manchester and Oxford (England), in Washington (USA), and Geneva (Switzerland).

II- The TALMUD:

The Talmud is the "oral tradition", written down by the Palestinian rabbis after the destruction of the Temple in 70 AC, with their commentaries (The "Mishnah").

- In the 4th century the rabbis from Babylon added their commentaries to the Mishnah ("Gemara").

- Together, the Mishnah and the Gemara make up the "Babylonian Talmud", with the 613 commandments.

- At the same time, another Gemara was created in Palestine , that became the Palestinian Talmud , shorter than the Babylonian one.

A Page of the TALMUD:

- Center Column: The Mishna, Gemara, or Bible are placed in the center column, and printed with heavy type.

- Inner Column: The commentary of Rashi is always located in the inner column.

- Outer Column: The Tosafot in the outer column, other commentaries and references in the outside columns in smaller type.

A Page of the Talmud

The materials of the 2 Talmud are of 3 kinds:

Halakah: Interpretations of the Law; the meaning of each commandment. The largest body.
Aggadah: Proverbs, Psalms, Parables...
Misdrashim: Commentaries of the Bible.known as purushartha

Religion : Judaism, JEWISH MYSTICISM

2006-04-11T12:09:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion. JEWISH MYSTICISM:

JEWISH MYSTICISM

Judaism is often called the religion of reason. It is this, but it is also the religion of the soul. It recognises the value of that mystic insight, those indefinable intuitions which, taking up the task at the point where the mind impotently abandons it, carries us straight into the presence of the King. Thus it has found room both for the keen speculator on theological problems and for the mystic who, because he feels God, declines to reason about Him--for a Maimonides and a Mendelssohn, but also for a Nachmanides, a Vital, and a Luria' (M. Joseph, _op. cit._, p. 47). Used in a vague way, mysticism stands for spiritual inwardness.

Religion without mysticism, said Amiel, is a rose without perfume. This saying is no more precise and no more informing than Matthew Arnold's definition of religion as morality touched with emotion. Neither mysticism nor an emotional touch makes religion. They are as often as not concomitants of a pathological state which is the denial of religion. But if mysticism means a personal attitude towards God in which the heart is active as well as the mind, then religion cannot exist without mysticism.

When, however, we regard mysticism as what it very often is, as an antithesis to institutional religion and a revolt against authority and forms, then it may seem at first sight paradoxical to recognise the mystic's claim to the hospitality of Judaism. That a religion which produced the Psalter, and not only produced it, but used it with never a break, should be a religion, with intensely spiritual possibilities, and its adherents capable of a vivid sense of the nearness of God, with an ever-felt and never-satisfied longing for communion with Him, is what we should fully expect. But this expectation would rather make us look for an expression on the lines of the 119th Psalm, in which the Law is so markedly associated with freedom and spirituality. Judaism, after all, allowed to authority and Law a supreme place. But the mystic relies on his own intuitions, depends on his personal experiences. Judaism, on the other hand, is a scheme in which personal experiences only count in so far as they are brought into the general fund of the communal experience.

But in discussing Judaism it is always imperative to discard all _a priori_ probabilities. Judaism is the great upsetter of the probable. Analyse a tendency of Judaism and predict its logical consequences, and then look in Judaism for consequences quite other than these. Over and over again things are not what they ought to be. The sacrificial system should have destroyed spirituality; in fact, it produced the Psalter, 'the hymnbook of the second Temple.' Pharisaism ought to have led to externalism; in fact, it did not, for somehow excessive scrupulosity in rite and pietistic exercises went hand in hand with simple faith and religious inwardness. So, too, the expression of ethics and religion as Law ought to have suppressed individuality; in fact, it sometimes gave an impulse to each individual to try to impose his own concepts, norms, and acts as a Law upon the rest. Each thought very much for himself, and desired that others should think likewise. We have already seen that in matters of dogma there never was any corporate action at all; in ancient times, as now, it is not possible to pronounce definitely on the dogmatic teachings of Judaism. Though there has been and is a certain consensus of opinion on many matters, yet neither in practice nor in beliefs have the local, the temporal, the personal elements ever been negligible. In order to expound or define a tenet or rite of Judaism it is mostly necessary to go into questions of time and place and person.
Perhaps, then, we ought to be prepared to find, as in point of fact we do find, within the main body of Judaism, and not merely as a freak of occasional eccentrics, distinct mystical tendencies. These tendencies have often been active well inside the sphere of the Law. Mysticism was, as we shall see, sometimes a revolt against Law; but it was often, in Judaism as in the Roman Catholic Church, the outcome of a sincere and even passionate devotion to authority. Jewish mysticism, in particular, starts as an interpretation of the Scriptures. Certain truths were arrived at by man either intuitively or rationally, and these were harmonised with the Bible by a process of lifting the veil from the text, and thus penetrating to the true meaning hidden beneath the letter. Allegorical and esoteric exegesis always had this aim: to find written what had been otherwise found. Honour was thus done to the Scriptures, though the latter were somewhat cavalierly treated in the process; Philo's doctrine (at the beginning of the Christian era) and the great canonical book of the mediaeval Kabbalah, the Zohar (beginning of the fourteenth century), were alike in this, they were largely commentaries on the Pentateuch. Maimonides in the twelfth century followed the same method, and only differed from these in the nature of his deductions from Scripture. This prince of rationalists agreed with the mystics in adopting an esoteric exegesis. But he read Aristotle into the text, while the mystics read Plato into it. They were alike faithful to the Law, or rather to their own interpretations of its terms.

Religion: Judaism, OBSERVANCES OF JUDAISM

2006-04-11T12:07:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion. OBSERVANCES OF JUDAISM:

OBSERVANCES OF JUDAISM

The historical consciousness of Israel was vitalised by a unique adaptability to present conditions. This is shown in the fidelity with which a number of ancient festivals have been maintained through the ages. Some of these were taken over from pre-Israelite cults. They were nature feasts, and these are among the oldest rites of men. But, as Maimonides wisely said eight centuries ago, religious rites depend not so much on their origins as on the use men make of them. People who wish to return to the primitive usages of this or that church have no grasp of the value and significance of ceremonial. Here, at all events, we are not concerned with origins. The really interesting thing is that feasts, which originated in the fields and under the free heaven, were observed and enjoyed in the confined streets of the Ghetto. The influence of ceremonial is undying when it is bound up with a community's life. 'It is impossible to create festivals to order. One must use those which exist, and where necessary charge them with new meanings.' So writes Mr. Montefiore in his _Liberal Judaism_ (p. 155).

This is precisely what has happened with the Passover, Pentecost, and the Feast of Tabernacles. These three festivals were originally, as has been said, nature feasts. But they became also pilgrim feasts. After the fall of the Temple the pilgrimages to Jerusalem, of course, ceased, and there was an end to the sacrificial rites connected with them all. The only sense in which they can still be called pilgrim feasts is that, despite the general laxity of Sabbath observance and Synagogue attendance, these three celebrations are nowadays occasions on which, in spring, summer, and autumn, a large section of the Jewish community contrives to wend its way to places of public worship.

In the Jewish Liturgy the three feasts have special designations. They are called respectively 'The Season of our Freedom,' 'the Season of the Giving of our Law,' and 'the Season of our Joy.' These descriptions are not biblical, nor are they found in this precise form until the fixation of the Synagogue liturgy in the early part of the Middle Ages. But they have had a powerful influence in perpetuating the hold that the three pilgrim feasts have on the heart and consciousness of Israel. Liberty, Revelation, Joy--these are a sequence of wondrous appeal. Now it is easily seen that these ideas have no indissoluble connection with specific historical traditions. True, 'Freedom' implies the Exodus; 'Revelation,' the Sinaitic theophany; 'Joy,' the harvest merry-makings, and perhaps some connection with the biblical narrative of Israel's wanderings in the wilderness. But the connection, though essential for the construction of the association, is not essential for its retention. 'The Passover,' says Mr. Montefiore (_Liberal Judaism_, p. 155), 'practically celebrates the formation of the Jewish people. It is also the festival of liberty. In view of these two central features, it does not matter that we no longer believe in the miraculous incidents of the Exodus story. They are mere trappings which can easily be dispensed with. A festival of liberty, the formation of a people for a religious task, a people destined to become a purely religious community whose continued existence has no meaning or value except on the ground of religion,--here we have ideas, which can fitly form the subject of a yearly celebration.' Again, as to Pentecost and the Ten Commandments, Mr. Montefiore writes: 'We do not believe that any divine or miraculous voice, still less that God Himself, audibly pronounced the Ten Words. But their importance lies in themselves, not in their surroundings and origin. Liberals as well as orthodox may therefore join in the festival of the Ten Commandments.
Pentecost celebrates the definite union of religion with morality, the inseparable conjunction of the "service" of God with the "service" of man. Can any religious festival have a nobler subject?' Finally, as to tabernacles, Mr. Montefiore thus expresses himself: 'For us, to-day, the connection with the wanderings from Egypt , which the latest [biblical] legislators attempted, has again disappeared. Tabernacles is a harvest festival; it is a nature festival. Should not a religion have a festival or holy day of this kind? Is not the conception of God as the ruler and sustainer of nature, the immanent and all-pervading spirit, one aspect of the Divine, which can fitly be thought of and celebrated year by year?

Thus each of the three great Pentateuchal festivals may reasonably and joyfully be observed by liberals and orthodox alike. We have no need or wish to make a change.' And of the actual ceremonial rites connected

with the Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles, it is apparently only the avoidance of leaven on the first of the three that is regarded as unimportant. But even there Mr. Montefiore's own feeling is in favour of the rite. 'It is,' he says, 'a matter of comparative unimportance whether the practice of eating unleavened bread in the house for the seven days of the Passover be maintained or not. Those who appreciate the value of a pretty and ancient symbol, both for children and adults, will not easily abandon the custom.'

This is surely a remarkable development. In the Christian Church it seems that certain festivals are retaining their general hold because they are becoming public, national holidays. But in Judaism the hold is to be maintained precisely on the ground that there is to be nothing national about them, they are to be reinterpreted ideally and symbolically. It remains to be seen whether this is possible, and it is too early to predict the verdict of experience. The process is in active incubation in America as well as in Europe, but it cannot be claimed that the eggs are hatched yet. On the other hand, Zionism has so far had no effect in the opposite direction. There has been no nationalisation of Judaism as a result of the new striving after political nationality. Many who had previously been detached from the Jewish community have been brought back by Zionism, but they have not been re-attached to the religion. There has been no perceptible increase, for instance, in the number of those who fast on the Ninth of Ab, the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple. Hence, from these and other considerations, of which limited space prevents the specification, it seems on the whole likely that, as in the past so in the future, the Festivals of the Synagogue will survive by changes in religious significance rather than by any deepening of national association.
Except that the Synagogues are decked with flowers, while the Decalogue is solemnly intoned from the Scroll of the Pentateuch, the Feast of Pentecost has no ceremonial trappings even with the orthodox. Passover and Tabernacles stand on a different footing. The abstention from leavened bread on the former feast has led to a closely organised system of cleansing the houses, an interminable array of rules as to food; while the prescriptions of the Law as to the bearing of palm-branches and other emblems, and the ordinance as to dwelling in booths, have surrounded the Feast of Tabernacles with a considerable, if less extensive, ceremonial. But there is this difference. The Passover is primarily a festival of the Home, Tabernacles of the Synagogue. In Europe the habit of actually dwelling in booths has been long unusual, owing to climatic considerations. But of late years it has become customary for every Synagogue to raise its communal booth, to which many Jews pay visits of ceremony. On the other hand, the Passover is _par excellence_ a home rite. On the first two evenings (or at all events on the first evening) there takes place the _Seder_, (literally 'service'), a service of prayer, which is at the same time a family meal. Gathered round the table, on which are spread unleavened cakes, bitter herbs, and other emblems of joy and sorrow, the family recounts in prose and song the narrative of the Exodus. The service is in two parts, between which comes the evening meal. The hallowing of the home here attains its highest point.

Unless, indeed, this distinction be allotted to the Sabbath. The rigidity of the laws regarding Sabbath observance is undeniable. Movement was restricted, many acts were forbidden which were not in themselves laborious. The Sabbath was hedged in by a formidable array of enactments.

To an outside critic it is not wonderful that the Jewish Sabbath has a repellent look. But to the insider things wear another aspect.

The Sabbath was and is a day of delight. On it the Jew had a foretaste of the happiness of the world to come. The reader who wishes to have a spirited, and absolutely true, picture of the Jewish Sabbath cannot do better than turn to Dr. Schechter's excellent _Studies in Judaism_ (pp. 296 _seq._). As Dr. Schechter pithily puts it: 'Somebody, either the learned professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under a delusion.' Right through the Middle Ages the Sabbath grew deeper into the affections of the Jews. It was not till after the French Revolution and the era of emancipation, that a change occurred. Mixing with the world, and sharing the world's pursuits, the Jews began to find it hard to observe the Saturday Sabbath as of old. In still more recent times the difficulty has increased. Added to this, the growing laxity in observances has affected the Sabbath. This is one of the most pressing problems that face the Jewish community to-day. Here and there an attempt has been made by small sections of Jews to substitute a Sunday Sabbath for the Saturday Sabbath. But the plan has not prospered.

One of the most notable rites of the Service of the Passover eve is the sanctification with wine, a ceremony common to the ordinary Sabbath eve.

Religion: Judaism, THE LEGACY FROM THE PAST

2006-04-11T12:05:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion.THE LEGACY FROM THE PAST:

THE LEGACY FROM THE PAST

The word 'Judaism' occurs for the first time at about 100 B.C., in the Graeco-Jewish literature. In the second book of the Maccabees (ii. 21, viii. 1), 'Judaism' signifies the religion of the Jews as contrasted with

Hellenism, the religion of the Greeks. In the New Testament (Gal. i. 13) the same word seems to denote the Pharisaic system as an antithesis to the Gentile Christianity. In Hebrew the corresponding noun never occurs in the Bible, and it is rare even in the Rabbinic books. When it does meet us, _Jahaduth_ implies the monotheism of the Jews as opposed to the polytheism of the heathen.

Thus the term 'Judaism' did not pass through quite the same transitions as did the name 'Jew.' Judaism appears from the first as a religion transcending tribal bounds. The 'Jew,' on the other hand, was originally a Judaean, a member of the Southern Confederacy called in the Bible Judah, and by the Greeks and Romans Judaea. Soon, however, 'Jew' came to include what had earlier been the Northern Confederacy of Israel as well, so that in the post-exilic period _Jehudi_ or 'Jew' means an adherent of Judaism without regard to local nationality.

Judaism, then, is here taken to represent that later development of the Religion of Israel which began with the reorganisation after the Babylonian Exile (444 B.C.), and was crystallised by the Roman Exile (during the first centuries of the Christian Era). The exact period which will be here seized as a starting-point is the moment when the people of Israel were losing, never so far to regain, their territorial association with Palestine, and were becoming (what they have ever since been) a community as distinct from a nation. They remained, it is true, distinct race, and this is still in a sense true. Yet at various periods a number of proselytes have been admitted, and in other ways the purity of the race has been affected. At all events territorial nationality ceased from a date which may be roughly fixed at 135 A.D., when the last desperate revolt under Bar-Cochba failed, and Hadrian drew his Roman plough over the city of Jerusalem and the Temple area. A new city with a new name arose on the ruins. The ruins afterwards reasserted themselves, and Aelia Capitolina as a designation of Jerusalem is familiar only to archaeologists.
But though the name of Hadrian's new city has faded, the effect of its foundation remained. Aelia Capitolina, with its market-places and theatre, replaced the olden narrow-streeted town; a House of Venus reared ts stately form in the north, and a Sanctuary to Jupiter covered, in the east, the site of the former Temple. Heathen colonists were introduced, and the Jew, who was to become in future centuries an alien everywhere, was made by Hadrian an alien in his fatherland. For the Roman Emperor denied to Jews the right of entry into Jerusalem. Thus Hadrian completed the work of Titus, and Judaism was divorced from its local habitation.

More unreservedly than during the Babylonian Exile, Judaism in the Roman Exile perforce became the religion of a community and not of a state; and Israel for the first time constituted a Church. But it was a Church with no visible home. Christianity for several centuries was to have a centre at Rome, Islam at Mecca. But Judaism had and has no centre at all.

But this much must be premised. If the Religion of Israel passed through the stages of totemism, animism, and polydemonism; if it was indebted to Canaanite, Kenite, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and other foreign influences; if it experienced a stage of monolatry or henotheism (in which Israel recognised one God, but did not think of that God as the only God of all men) before ethical monotheism of the universalistic type was reached; if, further, all these stages and the moral and religious ideas connected with each left a more or less clear mark in the sacred literature of Israel; then the legacy which Judaism received from its past was a syncretism of the whole of the religious experiences of Israel as interpreted in the light of Israel's latest, highest, most approved standards. Like the Bourbon, the Jew forgets nothing; but unlike the Bourbon, the Jew is always learning. The domestic stories of the Patriarchs were not rejected as unprofitable when Israel became deeply impregnated with the monogamous teachings of writers like the author of the last chapter of Proverbs; the character of David was idealized by the spiritual associations of the Psalter, parts of which tradition ascribed to him; the earthly life was etherialised and much of the sacred literature reinterpreted in the light of an added belief in immortality; God, in the early literature a tribal non-moral deity, was in the later literature a righteous ruler who with Amos and Hosea loved and demanded righteousness in man. Judaism took over as one indivisible body of sacred teachings both the early and the later literature in which these varying conceptions of God were enshrined; the Law was accepted as the guiding rule of life, the ritual of ceremony and sacrifice was treasured as a holy memory, and as a memory not contradictory of the prophetic exaltation of inward religion but as consistent with that exaltation, as interpreting it, as but another aspect of Micah's enunciation of the demands of God: 'What doth the Lord require of thee but to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?'

Religion: Judaism, JUDAISM

2006-04-11T08:49:00.000-07:00

Judaism, religion Judaism, Judaism religion. Overview of JUDAISM:

JUDAISM

Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and the first recorded monotheistic faith. The tenets and history of Judaism constitute the historical foundation of other religions, including Christianity and Islam. The 3 faiths recognize Abraham as the Patriarch.

Although Jews comprise only about 0.2% of the human race, 18 million, Jewish influence on the world has been vast, far more than their numbers would indicate.

Three Facts:

Judaism espouses belief in a monotheistic God , who is creator of the universe and who leads His people, the Jews, by speaking through prophets. Judaism is, in essence, the Law of God given to Moses .
Fundamental to Judaism is the belief that the people of Israel are God's chosen people, who must serve as a light for other nations. God made a covenant first with Abraham around 2000 BC, and then renewed it with Isaac, Jacob, and Moses . This means that Judaism is a religion that focuses on the group and the group's needs, rather than on individuals. Individuals are important only as their actions affect the group.
The expectancy of a Messiah who will bring universal peace and Jerusalem will be his capital center. Jews believe that the human condition can be improved, that the letter and the spirit of the Torah must be followed, and that a Messiah will eventually bring the world to a state of paradise.
The word of God (G-d) is revealed in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament), especially in that part known as the Torah . The Torah also contains, according to rabbinic tradition, a total of 613 biblical commandments, including the Ten Commandments, which are explicated in the Talmud. Main Scriptures: Tanakh, Torah, Talmud, Mishna

Today's Judaism
There are three main groups who vary in their interpretation of those parts of the Torah that deal with personal, communal, international, and religious activities:

The Orthodox community : which views the Torah as derived from God, and therefore absolutely binding. This the oldest, most conservative, and most diverse form of Judaism. Modern Orthodox, Chasidim and Ultra Orthodox share a basic belief in the derivation of Jewish law, even as they hold very different outlooks on life. They attempt to follow the original form of Judaism as they view it to be. They look upon every word in their sacred texts as being divinely inspired.
The Reform movement: They are a liberal group, followed by many North American Jews. The movement started in the 1790's in Germany. They follow the ethical laws of Judaism, but leave up to the individual the decision whether to follow or ignore the dietary and other traditional laws. They use modern forms of worship. There are many female rabbis in reform congregations.
The Conservative Jews : who follow most of the observances set out in the Torah but allow for change in the face of modern life. This began in the mid-nineteenth century as a reaction against the Reform movement. It is a main-line movement midway between Reform and Orthodox. It was brought to America by Solomon Schechter, and it is called the United Synagogue of America.
Holidays, Ceremonies and Life Style (Rites)
The High Holy Days, observed in September or October, centering on atonement from sin. They consist of Rosh ha-Shanah (the Jewish New Year) and Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement). Rosh ha-Shanah is marked by the blowing of a ram's horn, the shofar . Yom Kippur , 10 days later, is characterized by fasting and praying to God for the forgiveness of sins. After five more days comes Sukkot (Tabernacles), a joyful holiday marked by the construction of a sukkah (booth) decorated with festive fruit and plants. Yom Kippur and Sukkot go back to the Old Testament, the latter as a reminder that the people lived in tents as they journeyed to the Promised Land.

In November or December falls Hanukkah , a holiday that commemorates the victory of the Maccabees over the pagan desecrators of the Temple in the year 165 B.C. The New Testament mentions this holiday in John 10:22. During the week of Hanukkah, the menorah (candelabrum) is lit each night and potato pancakes are eaten.
In February or March, a carnival-like holiday called Purim is observed, recounting the events of the Book of Esther .

Passover , the most popular of all the Jewish holidays, falls in March or April and commemorates the Israelites' deliverance from slavery in Egypt as narrated in the Book of Exodus. This holiday is characterized by the eating of matzoh (unleavened bread) during the entire week and the observance of the Seder, or Passover meal, at the beginning of the week. The Last Supper of Jesus and the disciples was a Passover meal.

Finally, the holiday of Shavuot (Weeks) falls in May or June, with themes of springtime and harvest. Traditionally, this holiday was the day when God gave the Law to Israel at Mount Sinai.

Religion: SAINTS

2006-04-11T08:31:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. SAINTS:

SAINTS

At the beginning of his epistle to the Romans, Paul wrote: “To all God's beloved in Rome, who are called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (1:7). This name “saints” is one given to the members of the first Christian communities (e.g. Eph. 1:1). It may signify the Christians who constitute the “church of God” in a particular place (2 Cor. 1:1; Heb. 13:24-25; Col. 1:2), or it may signify the whole Christian people (Eph. 1:1; 1 Cor. 1:2). Its most frequent equivalent is “brothers (and sisters)”, as in Col. 1:2: “To the saints and faithful brothers and sisters in Christ in Colossae” (cf. Phil. 4:21-22). Saints form a new community coming both from the Jewish community in Jerusalem (Acts 9:13; Rom. 15:25) and from gentile Christianity (Rom. 1:7). The apostle is one of them: “I am the very least of all the saints” (Eph. 3:8). Later, they were called Christians (Acts 11:26).

Saints and the mystery of the church

The notion of saints should be seen as part of the mystery of the church,* “those who are sanctified [i.e. the holy people] in Christ Jesus” (1 Cor. 1:2), the people of the New Testament. It includes certain basic affirmations.

“One only is holy, One only is the Lord, Jesus Christ, to the glory of God the Father.” This is a very ancient liturgical exclamation which echoes the hymn of the Lamb (Rev. 15:3-4), acclaimed as Kyrios (Eph. 4:5; Phil. 2:11) and as “the Holy One of God” (John 6:69; cf. Luke 4:34). Jesus Christ* is holy both as the Son of God and as bearer of the Spirit when at his baptism the Holy Spirit* descended on him (Luke 3:22). With this authority and power he destroyed the unclean spirits (Luke 4:33-37). Christians “have been anointed by the Holy One” (1 John 2:20), being called to become “a temple of the Holy Spirit” (1 Cor. 6:19). The identity itself of the saint is to be bearer of the Spirit.

The faithful are called saints because of their participation in the holiness of God, who is holy by his own nature (Isa. 6:3). Christians are saints in God's holiness (1 Pet. 1:15), in Christ (Phil. 4:21). They are “God's chosen ones, holy [or saints]” (Col. 3:12). One aspect of the mystery of the church is this new consecration in Christ of a “priestly kingdom”, “holy nation”, “royal priesthood” (Ex. 19:6; 1 Pet. 2:9; cf. Isa. 43:20-21), which is not exclusive or restricted. An essential criterion of the new people is that “you are no longer strangers and aliens, but you are citizens with the saints and also members of the household of God, built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone” (Eph. 2:19-20).

It is part of the mystery of the church to be the manifestation of God's glory and holiness, for God “has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places, just as he chose us in Christ before the foundation of the world to be holy and blameless before him in love” (Eph. 1:3-4). He presents to himself a glorious church “without a spot or wrinkle or anything of the kind – yes, so that she may be holy and without blemish” (Eph. 5:27). Christ sacrificed himself for her to make her holy (Eph. 5:25-26). Christ made the church his body, in spite of the sin* of its members. Hence, the church must always be in a state of renewal, of repentance.

Scripture refers also to the communion of saints,* the friends and fellow heirs of Christ (see Eph. 4:1-6), the “inheritance among all who are sanctified” (Acts 20:32). He will come “to be glorified by his saints and to be marvelled at... among all who have believed” (2 Thess. 1:10). The kingdom of God* is promised to them and includes “the riches of his glorious inheritance among the saints” (Eph. 1:18). The book of Revelation recalls those who, having finished their earthly pilgrimage, enjoy God's presence in the heavenly city (Rev. 7:9-17). “To be ‘in Christ' is to be in his body, a member of a fellowship which transforms the local neighbourhood, which overleaps boundaries of nation and race and whose own boundaries are lost to sight in the infinite horizons of the eternal communion of saints” (Oliver Tomkins, Youth in the World-Church , 1947).

Belonging to a community is a sign of the new condition (see 1 John 2:19). Conversion* means, then, “to share in the inheritance of the saints in light” (Col. 1:12). It implies equally “the service of the saints” (1 Cor. 16:15).

As a holy people, the church has the capacity to discern, to sort out, to reveal the light that “darkness did not overcome” (John 1:5). The church of God received the power to bind and to loose (see John 20:23) and the power to judge (1 Cor. 6:2).

Religion: VIRGIN MARY (The Mother of Jesus)

2006-04-11T08:27:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. VIRGIN MARY (The Mother of Jesus):

VIRGIN MARY

In Christianity and Islam, Mary (Judæo-Aramaic מרים Maryām "Bitter"; Septuagint Greek Μαριαμ, Mariam, Μαρια, Maria; Arabic: Maryem, مريم ) was the mother of Jesus of Nazareth who at the time of his conception was the betrothed wife of Joseph, awaiting the customary "Home-Taking" that would permit them to start living together and to consummate their marriage (cf. Matt 1:18, 20). Most Christians and Muslims understand the Gospel account in this respect to mean that Mary was a virgin when she conceived Jesus through a miracle of God. Mary is the subject of much veneration in the Christian faith, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church, and is also highly regarded by Muslims. The area of Christian theology concerning her is Mariology.

Historicity

Most, though not all, historians accept that Jesus of Nazareth was a historical figure, even if they accept nothing or almost nothing of the account of his life in the Christian Gospels. Mary is mentioned by name in three of the four canonical Gospels, and the Book of Acts; the Gospel of John does not mention her by name.

Whilst the teaching of the Catholic Church that Mary was a virgin is not accepted by a number of Christian scholars who argue that the Greek term parthenos in Luke 1:27 does not necessarily have to mean "virgin [intacta]" but that there is also evidence for it signifying any "young woman", it is generally agreed that Mary was very young when she conceived Jesus. Some insight into traditions concerning her later life, e.g., that she died between three and 15 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, can be found in the New Testament Apocrypha. Assuming that Jesus died in his 30s, there is also little reason to doubt that his mother could still be alive at the time of his death, or that she could have witnessed it (cf. Jn 19:25). Beyond the accounts given in the Gospels and a few other early Christian sources, however, there is no independent or verifiable information about any aspect of Mary's life. An account of the childhood of Mary is given in the mid-second century non-canonical Gospel of James. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions built around the figure of Mary, and the centuries of Marian cult derived from the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, are based on faith, traditions of the Church Fathers (including the Gospel of James), and their interpretations of the Scriptures¹.

Mary is also directly named in the Qur'an, although this was written some six hundred years later.

Religion: APOSTOLIC TRADITION

2006-04-11T08:23:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. APOSTOLIC TRADITION:

APOSTOLIC TRADITION

“Tradition”* is a dynamic concept and presupposes a double movement, of receiving and transmitting. The apostolic Tradition is the gospel, the word and event of salvation,* entrusted by Jesus to the disciples he had chosen as its witnesses so that they in turn might hand it on with authority* (see Matt. 28:18-20; Acts 1:21-22). In 1 Cor., the term refers to the teaching Paul transmitted to the church in Corinth (11:2), especially concerning the Lord's supper (11:23) and the event of Christ's death and resurrection (15:3) (see common confession, creeds, eucharist ). Paul, the last to be favoured with an appearance of the risen Christ (15:8), had himself “received” the apostolic witness which he “handed on” to the Corinthians (15:3-7). What Paul received and transmitted was the gospel (15:1); it was also the meaning and manner of celebrating the Lord's supper (11:20,24-26), the central act of the life of the community Paul had founded at Corinth . The context of 1 Cor. 11 shows that the apostolic Tradition has a “centre” – the gospel of the saving passion of the Lord (11:23-26; cf. 15:1-8) – and a broader context of practices which the apostle bases on the mystery of Christ (11:2-16).

The pastoral epistles do not use the terminology of “tradition”, but the idea itself is everywhere implicit. Once again the gospel is the centre of the message (1 Tim. 1:15-18; 3:16-4:6) and connected with it, the context of ecclesial life, though with a new emphasis. False teachings oppose the gospel transmitted by the apostle. This authentic apostolic Tradition is referred to three times as a deposit – that which “has been entrusted” (1 Tim. 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:12,14) – associated with the idea of keeping or guarding, and fairly close to the Jewish idea of tradition (Ceslaus Spicq). But what is transmitted and guarded is, above all, the gospel. The organization of the church and the norms handed down by Paul for this purpose are meaningful only in reference to the transmission of the unique gospel (see church order, church discipline ).

Religion: APOSTOLIC TRADITION

2006-04-11T08:21:00.000-07:00

Religion: JESUS CHRIST

2006-04-11T08:19:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. JESUS CHRIST:

JESUS CHRIST

Jesus and the early church

There is no completely unambiguous use of the title “God” for Jesus in the NT (John 20:28 is the nearest; Rom. 9:5 and Titus 2:13 present considerable problems of translation and interpretation). However, it is clear that, within 20 years of the crucifixion (i.e. by the time Paul was writing 1 Cor.), there were Christian communities accustomed to thinking of Jesus as embodying the action of God towards the world, God's “power” and “wisdom” (1 Cor. 1:24). By the end of the 1st century C.E., when the gospel of John was probably written, Jesus could be seen as the one in whom dwelt the creative and mediating logos of God, the divine mind and purpose, the one upon whom the glory of God's tangible presence permanently rested. Jesus has become for believers what the temple was to Israel, the place where God is met, but is also the visible form of the power that makes the world. Both Paul and John suggest that, because Jesus is experienced as inaugurating a new age, a new creation, because he bestows on the believer a new identity in which human life is no longer bound and limited by a past of moral failure and staleness, or self-deceit and spiritual blindness, the history of Jesus is completely continuous with the infinite resource of divine life which brings all things into reality. Just as in the Jewish scriptures, especially the Psalms and Isa. 40-55, the exodus and the return from exile are seen as images of the creation itself, so now is the formation of the new human race through the history of Jesus. The difference is that here the creative act of God is bound up with a single human story as never before and that the scale of the restoration and renewal expands all the time towards the limits of the human world, including all men and women equally. It is inevitable that Jesus, as the one who enacts the saving action of God, should, like the God of Israel, be called Lord and should be seen as the touchstone by which all human events are to be judged, the one who possesses “all authority in heaven and on earth” (Matt. 28:18).

Yet this is only part of the picture. Jesus possesses supreme authority but does not simply stand in the place of the God of Israel. He prays to this God as “Father”, “Abba”, and interprets his mission and destiny as the fleshing-out of a purpose not his own. His authority is inseparably interwoven with a loving dependence upon the one he worships, a steady “obedience” – i.e. he allows the pressure of God's love for the world to mould his human identity without interruption. Particularly in John's gospel, Jesus is presented simultaneously as entirely and sovereignly free – and as doing nothing from his own human initiative alone. It is this paradox in the way the figure of Jesus is understood in the NT (cf. Phil. 2) that prompts the development of a technical theological account of his person and a new Trinitarian conception of God.* If Jesus' life is entirely moulded by the loving will of God, it makes sense to say that it is that loving will “made flesh” (see incarnation ), that there is no obstacle in Jesus to God's action in renewing the face of the earth.

But the life of Jesus, as we have seen, does not simply express the outgoing action of God but is also a loving response to God. So the conclusion is slowly drawn that the very life of God – if it is this which is expressed in the life of Jesus – involves both the outgoing, generative, creative element and the product or issue of that outgoing in the form of total and perfect response, reflection back of the love given. God comes to be conceived as both “Father” and “Son”. In the doctrinal controversies of the 4th century, out of which the Nicene Creed* emerged, the crucial point established was that God is never to be thought of as a solitary individual: God is eternally in relation and so eternally open to the “other”. It is because God is thus that there is no problem about God's will to create: although this is a free action, it is rooted in the divine life itself, whose nature is to generate in love and to generate love. Because of the relation of Father and Son, creation* has access to a share in this movement of creative love: creatures can also be creators. This theme, set forth classically by Athanasius in the mid-4th century, is what lies behind the Eastern Christian understanding of salvation* as theosis , sharing in God's life.

Jesus and salvation

The confession of Jesus Christ as God must therefore, if it is to be faithful to the NT witness, involve the belief that through Jesus the renewal of the whole human race has become possible and that all human beings may find in Jesus the good news of their absolution and liberation; through Jesus, all have access to the life he lives, the life of liberty and creativity founded upon complete openness to the divine will for the salvation of women and men. In other words, to confess Jesus as God is to presuppose something about the radical character of the salvation he brings – the “new creation” – and to be committed to the new human race, without barriers of race, sex and status, which has begun to exist as a result of his life, death and resurrection. Bonhoeffer was certainly right in insisting that it is impossible to confess Christ as God and Saviour while refusing to be committed to the hope of an
integrated, reconciled humanity: the Christological confession poses clear and sharp questions to our political and social loyalties, to our partial and distorted models of human community.

Remembering Paul's words in 1 Cor. 12:3, “no one can say ‘Jesus is Lord' except by the Holy Spirit”, we may conclude that to know Jesus as “Lord”, to acknowledge him as the Creator and final Judge of the new humanity, and as the one who opens for us the way to a share in the freedom of the Creator, is to live in or by the power of God's Spirit. God is “Father” and “Son” but is equally that agency which draws us into the relation between the eternal creative source and the eternal creative response – that which realizes in us the possibility established in the history of Jesus Christ and in the coming-to-be of a community committed to Jesus Christ.

Often in the history of theology, the salvation brought by Christ has been analyzed and theorized about without reference to the witness and work of the Spirit. Some have tended to think (as a superficial reading of certain early Christian writers might suggest) that salvation occurs because God, in becoming flesh, transforms human nature by the mere fact of contact with it. Others have stressed that the cross of Jesus alone brings about our redemption,* as a sacrifice or an expiation for our sin, and have refined and developed the language of Paul and the letter to the Hebrews about atonement through sacrifice. Both themes have a significant place in Christian theology. It is essential to see Christ as God's way of pledging absolute faithfulness to our “cause”, God's identification with the need and agony of human beings. Salvation does involve a transformation of our situation by God's contact with it. No less is it essential to see the death of Christ as pivotal to the process. Only in the cross do we see clearly the depth of our unfreedom, the way in which our moral, religious and political systems of power fear and reject the life God offers, and strive to obliterate the threatening hope of conversion. Only here do we see the cost of our slavery to ourselves and protection of ourselves. To say, as Christians have consistently said, that the cross is God's bearing of this cost may be a metaphor, but it is an untranslatable and irreplaceable one.

However, neither of these themes alone will carry the full weight of what the Bible understands as salvation. For this we need a doctrine of the work of the Spirit actively forming Christ's likeness in us, ceaselessly bringing us to conversion and hope.

We cannot speak of Jesus as God without speaking of him as Saviour; but equally we cannot speak of him as God without speaking of the God he calls Father, and we cannot speak of him as Saviour without speaking of the life in us of God as Spirit. This point is made with admirable clarity in the 1979 document from the Klingenthal consultation on the filioque:* “We are ‘christified', ‘made christs', in the church by the indwelling in us of the Holy Spirit, who communicates the very life of Christ to us, who in Christ makes us the brothers and sisters of Christ, and strengthens us in our new condition as the adopted children of the Heavenly Father.”

The Chalcedonian schism

In the early centuries of the church, Christology proved to be a deeply divisive force at least as much as it was a unifying one. The classic definition at Chalcedon* in 451 of the inseparable co-existence in Jesus of full divinity and full humanity looked back on what was already a complex history of controversy and was itself to fuel further division. The churches that refused Chalcedon did so because some believed it to compromise the necessary distinction between divine and human nature, while others saw it as over-emphasizing the disjunction between the divine Word and the
human Jesus.

The 20th century saw great advances in overcoming the ancient schism. Representatives of Chalcedonian and non-Chalcedonian churches (esp. those of the so-called monophysite tradition – a misleading label – in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Ethiopia and India) have had candid, fruitful conversations; recent popes have issued joint statements of faith with leaders of the non-Chalcedonian churches (e.g. the joint declaration of Pope John Paul II and the Syrian Orthodox patriarch of Antioch in 1984). There is a growing recognition that terminological confusion and misunderstanding, as well as political and ethnic rivalries, have long embittered what is at heart a disagreement in idiom and emphasis within a common faith. Non-Chalcedonians have played an active role in the work of F&O, not least in the recent studies towards an ecumenical explication of the apostolic faith as confessed in the Nicene Creed (381) (the sub-title of the 1991 study document Confessing the One Faith ). These studies have made it clear that a Christology firmly anchored in Trinitarian belief, grounded in a careful, critical and imaginative reading of scripture, and oriented towards the priorities of mission and of proclaiming a shared hope for the human world, remains the fundamental inspiration and critique of all ecumenical endeavour. Such an emphasis has increasingly dominated reflection on the doctrine of Christ outside the European and North American context.

Religion: CANON

2006-04-11T08:15:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. CANON:

CANON

The word “canon” derives from the Greek kan -on , a straight stick, measuring rod or ruler (cf. Latin regula ); hence, a standard or norm. At the end of the 2nd century, Irenaeus, Tertullian and others spoke of the “rule of faith” or “canon of truth”, meaning the heart of the gospel as expressed in summary forms similar to the creeds.* From the 4th century onwards, conciliar decisions on doctrine and discipline were designated canons (see ecumenical councils ). “Canon law” is the way most churches regulate their life (see canon law, church discipline ); monastic rules may also be called canons. In the liturgy of the Roman (Catholic) church, the “canon” of the mass is a normative eucharistic prayer.

Ecumenically, “canon” is most widely used in connection with the scriptures of the church. Verbally, such usage goes back only to the 4th century, but the fact and idea of a “collection of authoritative writings” (intrinsic authority) or even an “authoritative collection of (such) writings” (extrinsically recognized authority) has been present to Christianity since its beginnings. To the scriptures of Israel – which it claimed for its own – the earliest church added writings that told the story of Jesus the Christ and recorded the preaching, teaching and life of the primitive Christian community. The question of which writings were to be properly so treated arose acutely in the mid-2nd century. The catholic “canon” established itself over against, on the one hand, the reductionism of Marcion (whose own canon comprised only a doctored Luke and a mutilated corpus paulinum ) and, on the other hand, the pullulation of apocryphal gospels, acts and apocalypses that were largely Gnostic in character and, perhaps, the more recent oracles considered by the Montanists as further revelation. Positively put, the catholic canon consisted of those writings which had been accepted for reading in the worship of the church and, in the case of the “New Testament”, were held to be derived from an apostle or his surrogate (e.g. Mark writing for Peter, or Luke writing on the authority of Paul).

There was no conflict between such writings and authentic tradition. Indeed the scriptures* were intrinsic to the tradition – a vehicle for transmitting the Christian message and faith. Preaching, catechesis, sacramental rites, episcopal teaching and the confessions of martyrs and everyday saints were also instruments of the Tradition. But a special role and value attached to the scriptures – reflected in the care taken to protect them in times of persecution – as the permanent legacy of the original witnesses and of inspired writers who had been normatively guided by the same self-consistent Spirit as indwelt the believing community. According to an ecumenically influential formula of Oscar Cullmann: in establishing the principle of a canon, “the church, by an act of humility, submitted every later tradition that she would elaborate to the higher criterion of the apostolic tradition fixed in the holy scriptures” ( La tradition , 1953). Thus the canonical scriptures of Old and New Testament constitute, for the continuing life of the church, the decisive written testimony to God's history with Israel, the incarnation of the Son, and the mission of the Spirit. In times of doctrinal and ecclesiastical controversy, however, there has been conflict over their interpretation and over their operative relation to the other vehicles of tradition.

At the fourth world conference on Faith and Order (Montreal 1963), a remarkable convergence was registered between Protestants and Orthodox on Tradition (the “great T radition”, which is to be distinguished from the particular ecclesiastical “ t radition s ”, even if these are its channels) as the “ paradosis of the kerygma ”, the handing on of the message, “the Tradition of the gospel” – with the scriptures as a privileged and normative element within the Tradition. As “the Tradition in its written form”, the scriptures have “a special basic value” and serve as “an indispensable criterion” for distinguishing “faithful transmission” (Montreal 1963, paras 38-76). At the same time Vatican II, in line with the historical work of J.R. Geiselmann on the limits of the formula of the council of Trent* concerning “scriptures and (et) unwritten traditions”, rejected a draft text on “the two sources of revelation” and adopted instead the constitution Dei Verbum , which was much closer to Yves Congar's systematic notion that the scriptures and the oral-practical tradition of the church are diverse and interactive modes of transmitting one and the same gospel.

Thus there has been growing ecumenical agreement on the sufficiency of the scriptures, even if varying emphases continue to reflect historical controversies. The Protestant principle of sola scriptura was first erected against some practical and doctrinal tradition s which were tolerated or even endorsed by the pastoral authorities of the medieval West but in the reformers' eyes contradicted the original gospel and faith. Understood absolutely, “scripture alone” implies that the Bible is self-interpreting, at least under the Holy Spirit's direct guidance; but in fact the “living voice of the gospel” (viva vox evangelii) is always mediated by preachers who actively expound – and therefore interpret – what they take to be the scriptural message within a variable cultural context. While continuing to insist on the primacy of the scriptures, ecumenically minded Protestants recognize that the church has willy-nilly a “teaching office” – and the issue is as to where such a magisterium is lodged (bishops, synods, professors, pope...). The Roman Catholic tradition has always recognized more openly the need for a teaching office and has been more willing to admit the fact of later “explication” or “development” of what was latently or germinally present in the apostolic faith recorded in the scriptures (not only as regards, say, the full formulation of the doctrine of the Trinity but also, controversially, the Marian dogmas and the “Petrine office” itself). On its side, however, Vatican II has insisted that the magisterium remains subservient to the apostolic witness ( Dei Verbum 7-10).

While not all problems regarding the sufficiency of the scriptures in relation to Tradition have found an ecumenical solution, the more explosive question now may concern the integrity of the canonical scriptures. Although Christian churches differ somewhat over the extent of the OT (see Old Testament and Christian unity ), they are officially just about unanimous over the composition of the NT, i.e. those 27 books whose precise listing is first found in Athanasius's festal letter for 367 (see New Testament and Christian unity ). Nevertheless, three recurrent issues may prove disruptive.

Religion: GOD

2006-04-11T08:11:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. GOD:

GOD

Whatever your heart clings to and trusts in, that is really your god,” said Luther in his exposition of the first commandment in the large catechism. Unfortunately, the human heart and mind is, as Calvin recognized, a “perpetual factory of idols” ( Institutes 1.11.8). Phenomenologically speaking, there are therefore “many gods and many lords” (1 Cor. 8:5). But for Christians, the apostle Paul continues, “there is one God, the Father... and one Lord, Jesus Christ” (v.6). To come to the Christian faith is to turn “from idols, to serve a living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven, whom he raised from the dead – Jesus, who rescues us from the wrath that is coming” (1 Thess. 1:9-10). Or in Johannine terms: “And this is eternal life, that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent” (John 17:3).

The Christian doctrine of God is Trinitarian (see Trinity ). “When I say God”, declared Gregory Nazianzus (d.389), “I mean Father, Son and Holy Spirit” ( Oration 38.8; 45.4). Jesus Christ,* the Son, is “God from God,... eternally begotten of the Father”, while the Holy Spirit* “proceeds from the Father” and “with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified” (see Nicene Creed ). This Trinitarian pattern is profoundly stamped on all Eastern Orthodox liturgy and theology. The classic Western churches are also Trinitarian in creed; but in their theological reflection they have tended, at least from Augustine (d.430) onwards, to start with the “one simple substance of God” in such a way as to make distinctions among the three persons difficult. From Aquinas (d.1274) onwards, it was for centuries customary for Western dogmaticians to treat “the one God” (de Deo uno) before treating “the Triune God” (de Deo trino) . Modern Protestantism has stood under the aegis of Friedrich Schleiermacher, who devoted only the last ten pages of his “doctrine of the faith” ( Der christliche Glaube , 2nd ed., 1830), and then with “unitarian” sympathies, to the doctrine of the Trinity.

The Western situation changed in the 20th century with Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics (1932-67), which begins its doctrine of revelation* in a Trinitarian way that is then maintained throughout the work. And on the Roman Catholic side, Karl Rahner's lengthy article on the Trinity in the encyclopedic Mysterium Salutis (Johannes Feiner and Magnus Löhrer eds, 1965-76) has been very influential, especially in its celebrated axiom that “the ‘economic' Trinity is the ‘immanent' Trinity and vice versa” (vol. 2, 1967, 317-401, in particular 328): God is in very being (“immanent Trinity”) as God is self-revealed (“economic Trinity”), namely, Father, Son and Holy Spirit.

The ecumenical movement played a vital role in this “rediscovery” of the Trinity. In particular, the Orthodox churches contributed strongly: liturgically, they insisted on the invocation of the Holy Spirit to energize and complete the sacramental action (epiclesis); dogmatically, they brought to the fore the long controversial question of the procession of the Holy Spirit within the Godhead (see filioque ); and in both cases, the pneumatology was part of a full-orbed Trinitarianism. Ecclesiologically and missiologically, the Trinitarianly conceived and structured writings of Lesslie Newbigin proved seminal, namely T he Household of God (1953) and Trinitarian Faith and Today's Mission (1964). Highly significant was the insertion into the membership basis of the WCC, in 1961, of the phrase “to the glory of the one God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit” (see WCC, basis of ). The work in Faith and Order that led to the Lima text of 1982 emphasized the Trinitarian pattern of baptism and the Lord's supper (see Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry ); and the “apostolic faith study” followed the Trinitarian outline of the Nicene Creed.

In recent years there has been a flurry of books on the doctrine of the Trinity, with varied approaches and different emphases, from across the entire ecumenical board, including Jürgen Moltmann (Reformed), Trinität und Reich Gottes (1980, ET The Trinity and the Kingdom of God , 1981); Robert Jenson (Lutheran), The Triune Identity (1982); Walter Kasper (Roman Catholic), Der Gott Jesu Christi (1982); John Zizioulas (Orthodox), Being as Communion (1985); Boris Bobrinskoy (Orthodox), Le mystère de la Trinité (1986, ET The Mystery of the Trinity , 1999); Bruno Forte (Roman Catholic), Trinità come storia (1985, ET The Trinity as History 1989); Catherine LaCugna (Roman Catholic), God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (1991); and Thomas Torrance (Reformed), The Christian Doctrine of God, One Being, Three Persons (1996). The dominant insight has been that God is in very nature the loving communion of three persons. Such Trinitarianism, in its “positive” or “kataphatic” statements, does not impugn but rather recognizes the insights of “negative” or “apophatic” theology concerning the inexhaustibility of God, which must always transcend the knowledge even of redeemed, sanctified and perfected creatures.

The Christian doctrine of God has to be situated in reference to three developments or ranges of thinking in particular: the revelation embodied in Jesus Christ and the reflection of faith* upon that; philosophical theism and atheism;* and other religions, particularly those which profess faith in “one God”.

Religion : TRINITY

2006-04-09T14:06:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion: TRINITY:

TRINITY

Although there is no developed or systematic doctrine of the Holy Trinity in the Bible, yet the holy scriptures, especially the New Testament, bear witness to the self-revealing mystery of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit as distinct and yet inseparable persons acting for the life, salvation* and glorification of all humanity and of all creation.* In this respect, all the individual biblical references to God,* the Creator of heaven and earth, to his eternal Word and his eternal Spirit, from the beginning of the book of Genesis till the end of the book of Revelation, find their coherence and focus in the mystery of the incarnation* of Jesus Christ* (1 Tim. 3:16) and in its ultimate goal: the participation of the whole creation in God's kingdom* (Rev. 21:1-3). The mystery of the cross of Christ and of his resurrection* is the window and light through which the church* experiences the mystery of the divine Trinity as eternal love and sees the inner coherence and unity of the otherwise apparently diverse biblical witnesses related to the mystery of the Triune God.

Shortly before his crucifixion, the incarnate Word of God gives account to his eternal Father of his mission in the world, saying that he revealed to his disciples the very name of God, i.e. Father, and the eternal love of the Father for his only begotten Son (John 17:6-26, also 1:14), with whom the Father shares the same glory before the existence of the world (John 17:5). It is for the Father's eternal Son and through him that the world was created (John 1:1-3; Col. 1:15-20) and the church comes into existence (John 17:9-26; Eph. 2:19-22, 4:9-16; Col. 1:17-18). The very purpose of the Son's incarnation was to reveal to the world not only the love of God for his eternal Son but also God's love for the whole creation, and to inaugurate its participation in the eternal life of God (John 3:16), liberating the world from sin* and death (Matt. 26:28; John 6:51-58; 1 Cor. 15:20,26). The incarnate Son reveals also the identity of the Holy Spirit* as an eternal person distinct not only from the Father, from whom he proceeds, but also from the Son, to whom he bears witness (John 14:26, 15:26). The Father and the Holy Spirit not only confirm the very identity of Jesus Christ as being the only begotten, eternal Son of the Father, upon whom rests the Holy Spirit (Matt. 3:16-17 and par.; John 1:29-34), but they are also united with the Son, cooperating permanently with him, being present in him even in or since the very moment of the Son's incarnation, although the Son alone became man (Luke 1:35).

This differentiated yet indivisible action of the three distinct and inseparable divine persons revealed through the mystery of the incarnation of Christ is in fact present in the whole economy of salvation and consequently in the whole life of the church, pointing to the kingdom of God as being the kingdom of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. This life and activity of the Holy Trinity is an eternal and perfect communion* of love, a permanent movement of mutual and fully free self-offering of each person* to the others and of all of them to the world (John 10:17-18, 17:4; Phil. 2:6-11; Heb. 9:14). The Trinitarian revelation shows that ultimately the truth, life and unity in God are identical with koinonia*/communion.

The Father and the Son sent the Spirit into the world (Luke 4:18) in order that the Son may reveal to the world the love of the Father for it and the future action of the Spirit, who by his personal dwelling in the believers enables them to participate in the eternal love and glory which unite the Father and the Son (John 14:15-26, 15:26, 16:14-15). It is precisely by the dwelling of the Holy Spirit in those who believe in Christ that they can truly confess Jesus Christ as Lord (1 Cor. 12:3) and call God “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15-16), for the Spirit alone knows and declares all that the Father possesses and has given to the Son (John 16:13-15).

There is no confusion or subordination among the persons of the Holy Trinity but only mutual self-giving, each person glorifying the others. In fact the unity of the Trinitarian life lies in the movement of perfect mutual self-giving. This Trinitarian unity affirms the communion and distinctiveness of the persons.

The fact that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father (John 15:26) and rests upon the Son or is received by the Son from the Father (John 1:32; Luke 4:18; Acts 2:32-33) allows him to be called the Spirit of God the Father (1 Cor. 2:12, 3:16) and the Spirit of his Son or the Spirit of Christ (Gal. 4:6; Rom. 8:9). Since the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father, he is called the Spirit of God, but he is also called the Spirit of the Son, since he is received by the Son and sent by the Son from the Father, or by the Father in the name of Christ and at the request of Christ (John 14:26, 15:26). Being in a distinct manner the Spirit of the Father and the Spirit of Christ, the one Holy Spirit bears witness to the other two distinct persons in their irreducible distinctiveness: the Father and the Son.

At the same time, the Holy Spirit enables those who believe in Christ to be baptized in the koinonia of the one body of Christ, while preserving their unique identity (1 Cor. 12:13) and helping them to have access to the Father (Eph. 2:18) and to live within the world as adopted sons and daughters of the Father, receiving the same glorious gifts which the risen Jesus Christ received from the Father (Rom. 8:14-18). These gifts of the Father are communicated by the Spirit to those who believe in Christ in order that they may become like his Son, so that the Son should be the firstborn among many brothers and sisters (Rom. 8:29). Those who receive the Holy Spirit know the love of the Father as the Son knows it (John 17:25). In this way the Holy Spirit builds up church life and unity* through the participation of human beings in the life and koinonia of the Holy Trinity. Therefore all sacramental life of the church is accomplished through the action of the Holy Spirit and bears witness to the saving presence of the kingdom of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit within the world, thus preparing believers to long for the revelation of the glorious freedom of the children of God, for which in fact the whole creation is longing (Rom. 8:18-25).

For this reason, the apostolic church early identified baptism* with sharing in the mystery of the cross and resurrection of Christ (Rom. 6:3-4) and in the eternal Trinitarian communion of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The same church experienced in the whole ecclesial celebration both the distinctiveness and the indivisibility of the divine Trinitarian love for humankind (2 Cor. 13:13: “the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God and the communion of the Holy Spirit”). To early Christians, this experience of the living presence of the Holy Trinity in church life was so deep and self-evident that they could easily grasp the fact that “the church is full of Trinity” (Origen).

Religion : Christianity, FUNDEMENTAL PRINCIPLES

2006-04-09T13:58:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. FUNDEMENTAL PRINCIPLES of CHRISTIANITY:

FUNDEMENTAL PRINCIPLES

The FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES topics are:

Trinity

God

Canon

Jesus Christ

Apostolic Tradition

Virgin Mary

Saints

Religion : Christianity, CHRISTIANITY

2006-04-09T13:54:00.000-07:00

Christianity, religion Christianity, Christianity religion. General:

CHRISTIANITY

Christianity is the largest religion in the world. T he most popular religion in the world, Christianity has well over two billion followers.

Christianity was founded in Palestine by the followers of Jesus , in the 1st century AD. One of the world's major religions, it predominates in Europe and the Americas, where it has been a powerful historical force and cultural influence, but it also claims adherents in virtually every country of the world. To be a Christian is to acknowledge Jesus Christ as a savior.

Christians believe that Jesus Christ was the Son of God and that:
God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from the consequences of its sins (i.e. its non-good behaviour, or its disobedience to God)
Jesus was fully human, and experienced this world in the same way as other human beings of his time
Jesus was tortured and gave his life on the Cross (At the Crucifixion )
Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixion ( the Resurrection )
Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament
Christians believe that there is only one God , but that this one God consists of three persons ( Trinity ):
God the Father
God the Son
The Holy Spirit
Christians worship in Churches .
The Christian holy book is the Old and New Testament of the Bible. Christian creed , based on the New Testament , consists of the essential doctrines, or beliefs, of Christianity.
Christian festivals such as Easter and Christmas, play a major role in the Western calendar
The Christian history is focused on the life, death and resurrection of one person, Jesus Christ . In the centuries following the life of Jesus, Church leaders and theologians strove to express their beliefs with ever greater precision.

The essence of being a Christian is not to know about Christ but to be another Christ : "Me in Christ", in His Mystical Body, in His Church, and "Christ in me", by faith, by grace, freely, I no longer live, but Christ lives in me (Ga.2:20... John 15)... to live on earth the glorious adventure of a Christian in Christ, of another Christ, doing wonderful woks, and to end up in eternal heaven, full of joy and peace and love for ever and ever.

Religion: Islam, 99 NAMES OF ALLAH

2006-02-10T09:51:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion.99 NAMES OF ALLAH:

"99 NAMES OF ALLAH

AR-RAHMAN

The Beneficent
AR-RAHIM

The Mercifull
AL-MALIK

The Sovereign Lord
AL-QUDDUS

The Holy
AS-SALAM

The Source Of Peace

AL-MU'MIN

The Guardian Of Faith
AL-MUHAYMIN

The Protector
AL-AZIZ

The Mighty
AL-JABBAR

The Compeller
AL-MUTAKABBIR

The Majestic

AL-KHALIQ

The Creator
AL-BARI

The Evolver
AL-MUSAWWIR

The Fashioner
AL-GHAFFAR

The Forgiver
AL-QAHHAR

The Subduer

AL-WAHHAB

The Bestover
AR-RAZZAQ

The Provider
AL-FATTAH

The Opner
AL-ALIM

The All Knowning
AL-QABIZ

The Constrictor

AL-BASIT

The Expender
AL-KHAFIZ

The Abaser
AR-RAFI

The Exalter
AL-MUIZZ

The Honourer
AL-MUZILL

The Dishonourer

AS-SAMI

The All Hearing
AL-BASIR

The All Seeing
AL-HAKAM

The Judge
AL-ADL

The Just
AL-LATIF

The Subtle One

AL-KHABIR

The Aware

AL-HALIM

The Forbearing One

AL-AZIM

The Great One
AL-GHAFUR

The All-Forgiving
ASH-SHAKUR

The Appreciative

AL-ALI

The Most High
AL-KABIR

The Most Great
AL-HAFIZ

The Preserver
AL-MUQIT

The Maintainer
AL-HASEEB

The Reckoner

AL-JALIL

The Sublime One
AL-KARIM

The Generous One
AR-RAQIB

The Watch"

Religion: Islam, SUFISM

2005-12-09T10:22:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion. SUFISM:

"SUFISM"

The mysticism of Islam is known as Sufism, a name said to be derived from the Arabic word suf which means wool, referring to the woolen mantles worn by the Sufis. With Muslim mysticism we see the climax of the development of religious life and teaching in Islam. Neither the philosophers nor the theologians nor the canon lawyers have contributed so much as the mystics toward deepening the meaning of their religion and enriching its teachings. It is due to them that Islam, in the way they understand it, can be compared with other great religions of the world, for mysticism is the only ground on which the great religions meet.

Muslim mysticism has, from the time of its inception, been a spiritual revolution against a variety of forms and systems, both social and religious. After a long period of hard struggle, Sufism established itself in two quite different ways: as a religious philosophy and as the popular religion of Islam. During some of its flourishing periods, the Sufis were counted by the millions all over the Muslim Empire and in some countries their influence was so great that the heads of their orders were the practical rulers, with supreme authority in every major problem concerning the religious or secular institutions. Such influence can be found even now in some Muslim communities.

As an ideal mode of spiritual life, Sufism has passed through various stages. At some times it was thoroughly orthodox, at others so far removed from orthodoxy as to become a mere system of religious philosophy. It has also undergone some periods of stagnation and corruption during which its followers completely lost sight of the noble and lofty ideals of the original founders, preserving an outward appearance of ritual with nothing to correspond to it in the heart. But these remarks belong more to the history of Sufism. Our immediate object here is to try to set forth the mystical attitude toward Islam so far as it can be gleaned from the lives and teachings of the great Sufi masters, leaving everything else out of our account.

The special attitude of the Muslim mystics toward Islam was quite clear from the time their movement started. Until the end of the second century (eighth century AD.) religious laws were based on the literal texts of the Qur'an and Prophetic Traditions, and scrupulously carried out. They were thoroughly studied and strictly adhered to in practice. Knowledge of the canon law, jurisprudence, was the most venerated of all knowledge, and adherence to its rules was the ultimate aim as well as the true mark of every pious Muslim. When the Sufis appeared on the scene, they came with another religious ideal. To them the examination of the esoteric meaning of the law was a more worthy objective than the study of the law in its esoteric sense. Hence arose the distinction between the outward expression of the law and its inward significance, and with it the distinction between the study of jurisprudence on the one hand and Sufism on the other. The jurists became known as the externalists and the Sufis as the internalists. Gradually the opposition between the two camps grew more and more intense as they realized that they stood for two different conceptions of Islam and its teachings.

Religion: Islam, ISLAM SUBDIVISIONS

2005-12-09T10:20:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion. ISLAM SUBDIVISIONS:

"ISLAM SUBDIVISIONS"

From the beginning, the basic sources of Islam have been the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Muslims have always looked to the Qur'an as their guide and have prayed and fasted and made pilgrimages as the Prophet did. For the details governing their lives, Muslims have relied upon their reason in applying the principles of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and this has been the cause of the different schools of law, the various tendencies, and the sects which are found in Islam.

Followers of the Hanafi school of law tend toward rationalism, such as is found among the Mu'tazilities; the Shafi'i school follows the moderate theology of the Ash'arites; the Malikites are predestinationist; and the Hanbalites tend to be literal in their interpretation of theology. These are theological tendencies, but not sectarian differences.

The two major sects in Islam are the Sunnis and the Shi'as, whose distinctive characteristics have been discussed at length in earlier chapters in this book. Among the Shi'as the three leading sects are the Ithna Ashariya, the Sab'iya, and the Zaidis. The Ithna Ashariya is the major group among the Shi'as, found primarily in Iraq and Iran; they accept the twelve Imams. The Sab'iya, sometimes called the Seveners because they broke away over the claim that Isma'il was the seventh Imam, are also known as the Isma'ilis. They have divided into several sects, of which the best known is the group which follows the Agha Khan, found in Pakistan, India, Iran, Syria, and East Africa. The Zaidis, now found in Yemen, are a small Shi'a sect which has drawn closer to the Sunnis over the years.

The Kharijites, who rebelled against Ali, were originally Shi'a and have been somewhat influenced by Sunni thought. They are found in Oman and Muscat, and in North Africa where they are known as Ibadis.

More than ninety per cent of the Muslims of the world are Sunnis, followers of the Sunnah. The only sects of any importance among the Sunnis are the Wahhabis, the reformist sect of Arabia, and the Qadiani sect of Pakistan which is generally looked upon as somewhat heretical, although its Lahori branch is not always so regarded. The various tendencies among the Sunnis have often led to differences in point of view, but not to the creation of new sects. The most widely accepted theological position is that of the Ash'arites. The rationalism of the Mu'tazilites at one time almost led to the formation of a recognizable sect, but today the rationalist point of view is only one of several tendencies among the Sunnis. Differences between the firmly orthodox and the modern reformist have not created a sectarian division.

Religion: Islam, ISLAMIC SOCIETY

2005-11-30T09:35:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion. ISLAMIC SOCIETY:

ISLAMIC SOCIETY

To understand the role of Islam in society one must first realize that Islam is a universal religion in which all Muslims are brothers, regardless of differences in homeland, race, color, or rank. This brotherhood does not divide the world into Muslims and non-Muslims, for Muslims must be friendly toward non-Muslims so long as they are friendly, so long as they do not attack Islam. Islam has retained its unity and universal characteristics in the midst of such diverse cultures as those of Arabia, Greece, Rome, and Iran in ancient times, and later in the cultures of Africa, Egypt, Turkey, Central Asia, India, China, and Southeast Asia. Once more the universalism of Islam is being shown as it comes into contact with the new culture of the West.
In this interplay between Islam and the various cultures of the world it should be remembered that Islam has no master organization which requires conformity or organizes missionary programs. The interplay is a spontaneous movement on the part of individual Muslims who seek to follow the straight path of Islam. These Muslims recognize no distinction between the religious and the secular; they try to follow in their social life the rules revealed to them in the Qur'an and the Sunnah and interpreted in Islamic law. For Islam, the present world is but a transitory existence to be followed by the Eternal World which is better by far, 'And verily the latter portion will be better for thee than the former' (Surah XCIII, 4).

This does not mean that we must neglect this world; on the contrary, Islam warns us against neglecting it, for the Qur'an says, "But seek the abode of the Hereafter in that which Allah hath given thee and neglect not thy portion of the world, and be thou kind even as Allah hath been kind to thee, and seek not corruption in the earth; lo! Allah loveth not corrupters" (Surah XXVIII, 77). Islam recognizes the importance of life in the community in this world, but it warns the Muslim against considering this world as the end of existence. Moral and religious values must be seen to be higher than material values.

The importance of social justice is constantly emphasized in Islam through the obligation of zakat and the distribution of gifts at the times of the great festivals. In the older Islamic countries this has been the origin of waqfs for all kinds of service to the community. The teachings concerning zakat stress the principle that the ownership of wealth is a privilege, not a right, and one which imposes obligations to the community. In the Traditions the Prophet exhorts us to give our servants the same food we eat and the same clothes we wear.

In Islam the merit of a person depends upon his deeds, not upon his words, nor his ancestors, nor his rank in the community. The Qur'an says, "there is nothing for the person but what he has done" (Surah LIII, 39) and again, "The highest among you is the most pious" (Surah XLIX, 13). The only recognized difference in rank in Islam is that which is merited by religious devotion and insight. Such recognition is accorded on the basis of deeds, not on the basis of office. Islam has no ordained clergy, no religious hierarchy with authority over their fellow Muslims. The ulama, the Shaikh, Mullah, Imam, Ahund, Mufti, Mujtahid, Hatib, all are only men like the others in the Muslim community, men who perform special services and are respected and elevated only on the basis of the Quranic principle that the highest is the most pious

Religion: Islam, ISLAMIC LAW

2005-11-30T09:31:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion. ISLAMIC LAW:

ISLAMIC LAW

The practical consequences of the six fundamentals of Islam include both worship, as outlined under the five Pillars of Islam, and dealings, or the responsibilities of Muslims in their everyday life. These practical consequences, the particular requirements of religion, have been codified in the four schools of law which exist amicably side by side in the Muslim world. The Maliki school which was founded during the second century after Muhammad shows preference for the Traditions and practices of Medina where the Prophet lived for thirteen years; it is found today chiefly in North Africa, some parts of Egypt, and in the Sudan. Also in the second century there lived in Baghdad a silk merchant named Abu Hanifah, a rationalist who based his teachings concerning the consequences of religion on the Qur'an and the Traditions. He wrote no book himself, but his disciples spread his liberal teachings and founded the Hanaifi school of jurisprudence which is found in Turkey , Afghanistan , Central Asia, Pakistan , India , and Egypt . Another of Abu Hanifah's disciples, Muhammad Ibn Idris al-Shafi�i, founded the Shafi'i school in the third century; he was a great systematic jurist who took an Intermediate position between extreme legalism and traditionalism. The school of Shafi'i interpretation is predominant in South Arabia, South India, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The fourth school of law was also founded in the third century after the Prophet by Ahmad Hanbal, a resident in Baghdad; he stressed the Traditions and distrusted the use of reason. The Hanbalis arc found in Central Arabia, Syria, and some parts of Africa.

These four schools of law, covering the four divisions of rites, contracts, matrimonial law, the penal codes , were worked out so completely by their founders over a thousand years ago that those who came after them found fully adequate systems of law which met all the requirements of their times. A Muslim was free to choose any one of the four systems for his personal guidance, but the prevailing practice was to choose the school of law which was followed in the place of a man's birth. Thus a man born in Indonesia is usually a follower of Shafi'i law, while a man born in Turkey will be a Hanafite

Religion: Islam, SUNNAH

2005-11-30T09:28:00.000-08:00

Islam, Religion Islam, Islam Religion. SUNNAH:

SUNNAH

The prophetic teachings outside the Qur'an are called the Sunnah, the Traditions. The base of Islam, as we have seen, is the Qur'an, and nothing is believed or commanded which is contrary to any revelation in the Holy Book. The Sunnah is the derived law of Islam which every Muslim is obliged to obey.
The Prophet taught in three ways: by oral instructions; by the example of his personal behavior; and by his silence, his tacit approval of other people's actions, by letting others do as they pleased without comment or reproach. These three aspects of the Prophet's teaching, speaking, acting, and approving , are the basis for the Muslim tradition called the Sunnah, and are considered to be the second source of Islamic legislation and instruction.

The Prophet draws this triple authority from the Qur'an itself, for it commands us to obey the Messenger's orders (Surah IV, 59; XXIV, 56), tells us that he who obeys the Prophet obeys the very commandments of God (Surah IV, 80), and recommends that we follow his example (Surah XXXIII, 21). In the Qur'an the Prophet is commanded to behave in such a way that his behavior will be a model for believers (Surah XXXIII, 37). It also describes the Prophet as one who gave to mankind all good instructions and forbade all bad actions; therefore, the action he does not forbid is permitted (Surah VII, 157).

The great majority of Muslim learned men hold, with good reason, that the Prophet's teachings follow either the directive of divine, though nontextual, inspiration or, if it was a personal, purely human effort, he applied the very essence or spirit of the law of the Qur'an. If in his instruction as a human being, without specific revelation, he ever was in error, he was immediately brought back to the truth through a revelation (Surah IV, 106-13; VIII, 67; IX, 43, 113). In the absence of such correcting revelations, all his orders, permissions, judgments, and behavior are rightly considered as implicitly approved and having full legislative and educative authority, subject only to the condition that they have been transmitted through authentic and strictly verified sources. Thus the Muslim tradition in Islam is related to the Qur'an as a nation's laws are related to its constitution.

Religion: Islam, THE QUR�AN (KORAN)

2005-11-25T13:00:00.000-08:00

Islam: THE QUR�AN (KORAN):

THE QUR�AN (KORAN)

The greatest miracle was the revelation of the Qur'an which was transmitted by the Prophet in passages of unequal length at different times over a period of twenty-three years.
As soon as the Prophet received each inspired message he recited it to his audience and they in turn repeated it to the community, which was made up of people who were fond of literature and eagerly awaited each new message, whether they were partisans or adversaries.

As the Prophet dictated each new passage it was written down by the scribes on anything within reach, on thin white stones, pieces of parchment, wood, leather, or whatever was available. Tradition counts up to twenty-nine different persons in Medina who served as secretaries; a lesser number of scribes recorded the revelations received in Mecca. From the very beginning the faithful never failed to record the revealed messages, even during the persecutions. Among these scribes were included the first five Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Mi, and Mu'awiya.

Thus the holy book of Islam became known in both an oral and written form. In its oral form it was called Qur'an, that is, Recital. In its written form it was called Kitab, or Scripture.

At the beginning the written extracts were not put in order or even gathered together, for other messages were expected.

As time went on several groups of verses began to grow up and tended to become independent unities as new verses were added according to the instructions given by the Prophet, who was following the orders of the Revealer Spirit. Although the text was originally scattered in its written form, it always had a definite order in the Prophet's mind and in the minds of the faithful, with each verse or group of verses fitting into its proper place in the structure of the whole. In the Prophet's lifetime there were hundreds of his Companions, called "Qur'an bearers," who were specialists in reciting the Book and knew by heart every Surah in its proper place in the structure.

At the death of the Prophet the Qur'an was preserved in the memories of the faithful as well as in writing. While in its oral form every Surah was complete and in its proper place in the order known today, in its written form it was nothing but scattered documents written on many different materials. During the year following the death of the Prophet no one worried about the written form because there were innumerable oral witnesses among them as living copies of the Qur'an complete in its final form. But about a year after the Prophet's death seventy of the Qur'an bearers were killed in the battle with Musailima, the false prophet, and it became clear that it would be necessary to guard against the loss of the oral tradition by gathering the written documents into a book easy to handle and use for reference. The idea of preparing the book was suggested by Umar and carried out by Zaid Ibn Thabit, a Qur'an bearer who had attended the last recital of the Qur'an by the Prophet and a man known for his intelligence, integrity, and competence.

Under the guidance of Zaid Ibn Thabit the correct written form of the Qur'an was determined by including only those passages which were verified by two witnesses as having been written down at the dictation of the Prophet and as being in the oral text of the last recital by the Prophet. This official collection is distinguished from the other personal, oral versions by an absolute rigorism which excluded from the text any explanatory notes and even eliminated the Surah titles. ‘When the written form was completed it was given to the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, who entrusted it to Umar when he designated him the second Caliph. Since the third Caliph had not been chosen at the time of Umar's death, he gave it to his daughter Hafsah who was one of the widows of the Prophet.

Religion: Islam, MUHAMMAD (PBUH)

2005-11-24T04:33:00.000-08:00

ISLAM: MUHAMMAD (PBUH):

MUHAMMAD (PBUH)

Muhammad, the son of an illustrious Arab family known for its religious accomplishments and political activities, was born in Mecca on Monday, the ninth of the month Rabi Awwal (April 20, A.D. 571), in the fifty-third year before the beginning of the Muslim Era. His father died before the child was born. When Muhammad lost his mother in his sixth year he was taken into the house of his grandfathers who foresaw for him a splendid future. The grandfather died two years later, leaving him to be cared for and educated by his uncle Abu Talib who had always shown a fatherly interest in him.

The affectionate bond between the young lad and his uncle was so strong that he often traveled with him on caravan journeys. Tradition says that when he was twelve he accompanied his uncle on a commercial journey to Syria, where they met a Syrian monk called Bahira who recognized in the young man the characteristics of a prophet. He advised the uncle to take good care of Muhammad always, and to mistrust especially the Jews who might wish him ill if ever they learned of the prophetic mission he would be called to fulfill.

Muhammad spent his youth in humble circumstances, much of the time working as a shepherd. As he later pointed out, herding sheep was also the occupation of many other prophets, Moses and David in particular.

As a young man he distinguished himself by his refined manners, his extreme shyness, his absolute chastity, and his avoidance of the easy pleasures pursued by other young men of his community. All those who knew him showed complete confidence in him for he fully deserved the name by which he was called, al-Amin, which means the true and reliable one. When he was only twenty years old he was called to sit with the most venerable shaikhs of the Fudul league, an association which cared for the weak and helpless and sought to assure peace between the tribes.

At the age of twenty-five he married the rich and virtuous Khadijah, and in his married life he revealed to his family and the community his excellent human qualities. The trade which he carried on with his wife's funds kept them in comfortable circumstances, but he used his resources only as a means of spreading happiness. For instance, in order to repay his uncle for having taken care of him in his youth, he took responsibility for the education of Abu Talib's son, Ali.

Muhammad remained a faithful, loving husband during the quarter-century of his marriage to Khadijah, and after her death he was so fond of recalling the sweet memories of their married life that he caused not a little naive jealousy in his second marriage. He was an excellent father and grandfather, showing an ideal tenderness toward his children and grandchildren. He allowed them to hang on his neck or to mount on his back, even while he was praying; he interrupted his speeches in order to greet them and made them sit with him on his chair. Some Bedouins, seeing him kiss one of his grandchildren, said, "You kiss the children? We never do that." To which the Prophet replied, "What can I do if God has deprived your hearts of all human feeling? God does not grant His mercy to those who are not merciful." (al-Bukhari, Al Adab, Chapter 18).

Religion Islam, THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

2005-11-22T07:55:00.000-08:00

Islam,ISLAM: THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM:

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to the five most fundamental aspects of Sunni Islam.
The Five Pillars of Islam , are five formal acts of worship, bringing clarity and order for living righteously. For a Muslim, they are the framework of life. The first of the Five Pillars is a state of faith; the other four are major exercises of faith.
The First Pillar is SHAHADA (Confession of Faith): 'There is no god but God, and Muhammad is his messenger' Shi'is add 'and Ali is his friend'.

One must state "La ilaha illa Allah", publicly and with conviction to become a Muslim.

This statement of faith is referring to two basic concept of Islam: Monotheism and Uniqueness of Muhammad (pbuh) as a prophet.

The Second Pillar is SALAH (Prayer): To pray 5 times a day, facing toward Mecca. The person bows, kneels, and then into a prostate position with the forehead touching the ground.

The time for prayers are:

Fajr: Morning / right before sunrise
Dhuhr: After midday
Asr: Midway between midday and sunset
Maghrib: Right after sunset
Isha'a: One hour after sunset
Before prayer, the body must be purified by water or sand if water is not available. The parts cleansed include arms, head, and the feet up to the ankles. If the cleansing was done using water, the Muslim is considered to have Wudhu . Unless the Muslim does something to remove this cleanliness, there is no need to repeat the cleansing before the next prayer. Unless the Muslim does something to remove this cleanliness, the cleansing would not need to be repeated before the next prayer. Cleansing with sand is temporary.

Religion: Islam, ISLAM

2005-11-10T12:33:00.000-08:00

Religion: Islam, ISLAM: "

ISLAM

Islam is the second largest religion in the world, after Christianity. With around 1.4 billion followers worldwide ( Muslims are divided in two major branches: Sunni 940 million and Shia 120 million).
Islam is the last of the three Abrahamic religions, after Judaism and Christianity. As Sarah Had no son, Abraham took Hagar for second wife. According to Qu'ran, Ishmael , the son of Abraham and Hagar, went to the place where Mecca was. His descendants became Muslims.

Islam is over 1300 years old and has appeared first in Arabia (VII century). Before Islam , the Arabic Peninsula was populated by Bedouins, warring tribes, and multiple religions: Polytheism the religion of Arabs leaving in the cities; Christians and Jewish communities.

In Mecca there were 360 shrines to various gods and pilgrimages to those shrines was a great source of revenue for the town.

Islam is derived from a root word meaning “ Surrender or the submission to one God, called Allah ”. Muslim is the “one who submits”. The submission applies to every moment in the life of a Muslim. The full connotation of Islam is the perfect peace that comes when one's life is surrendered to God: “I testify that there is nothing worthy of worship but God; and I testify that Muhammad is His Messenger." This complete submission presupposes as an acceptable minimum a firm belief in the truth and justice of all that God has revealed in human history. Islam is both a religion and a way of life.

According to the tradition, when the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was 40, archangel Gabriel appeared to him during a vision ( in the cave at Mt. Hira ) . This vision and the ones that followed were interpreted to be verses and the direct word of God. They were compiled into the holy text of Islam, the Qur'an (Koran) .

After 4 years Muhammad (pbuh) had 40 disciples and started to openly preach in Mecca ( Khadija his wife became the first convert to Islam).

Due to increasing hostility, he left Mecca to Medina (previously called Yatrib).

The Islamic calendar begins from this event called “ Hegira " or " Hijra ” (emigration) in 622 . In Medina Muhammad (pbuh) was recognized as a prophet and a brilliant administrator (Firm in his justice and yet merciful).

Later the Arab and Jewish opposition were crashed in Medina and a war was declared against Mecca. During this period many Arab tribes declared allegiance to Muhammad (pbuh).

Mecca capitulated in 630 . Before his death in 632 , Muhammad (pbuh) became the head of an Arab/Islamic state which was extending quickly. Within half a century of the Prophet 's death, Islam had spread to three continents.

“Islam does not approve of hostility toward other religions. Rather, it proclaims freedom of religion and forbids coercion in religion. During his lifetime, Muhammad (pbuh) himself was very kind toward his neighbors and friends of other beliefs, Jews as well as Christians. He even married a Jewish woman, Safijah, and a Christian slave, Marie, who was given him by the ruler of Egypt. When the Emperor of Abyssinia died, Muhammad (pbuh) prayed for him in recognition of his help given to the Muslims who took refuge there in the early days of Islam”

The 6 basic beliefs/faith (Iman) Of Muslims:

Believe in the Unity of God
Belief in the Angels: Allah's faithful servants.
Belief in the Books sent by God
Belief in all the Prophets and Messengers sent by God
Belief in the Day of Judgment (Qiyamah) and in the Resurrection
Belief in Destiny/Fate (Al-Qadr)

Religion Universe: Hinduism, POPULATION

2005-11-07T11:00:00.000-08:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, POPULATION: "POPULATION

Hinduism Population

Top 10 Most Hindu Countries with the Highest Proportion of Hindus

Country
Percent

Nepal
89%

India
79

Mauritius
52

Guyana
40

Fiji
38

Suriname
30

Bhutan
25

Trinidad and Tobago
24

Sri Lanka
15

Bangladesh
11

Top 10 Largest National Hindu Population

Country
Percent
Number

India
79%
751,000,000

Nepal
89
17,380,000

Bangladesh
11
12,630,000

Indonesia
2.5
4,000,000

Sri Lanka
15
2,800,000

Pakistan
1.5
2,120,000

Malaysia
6
1,400,000

USA
0.2
910,000

Mauritius
52
570,000

South Africa
1.5
420,000

United Kingdom
1
410,000

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Religion: Hinduism, THE FOUR GOALS AND FOUR STAGES OF LIFE

2005-11-04T08:31:00.000-08:00

Religion: Hinduism, THE FOUR GOALS AND FOUR STAGES OF LIFE:

THE FOUR GOALS AND FOUR STAGES OF LIFE

The Four Goals of Life
Major aspects of Hindu dharma known as purushartha are:
Kama: Seeking physical (sensual love) or emotional pleasure within the limits of dharma.
Artha: As kama pursuit has a limiting satisfaction after while, artha or seeking power, fame and wealth will be complementary.

Dharma: With age and maturity, one will have the joy of living in harmony with dharma.

Moksha: The real and infinite goal of one life.

The Four Stages of Life

Known as four Ashramas, they are:

Brahmacharya: The first 20 years of life , preceded by the Upanayanam ceremony during which a child is considered to be born again. Brahmacharya is pure contemplation of life's secrets under a Guru.

Religion: Hinduism, WORHIP (PUJA)

2005-11-01T15:00:00.000-08:00

Religion: Hinduism, WORHIP (PUJA):

WORHIP (PUJA)

Hindu worship ( puja ) involves images of god/goddesses ( murtis ), prayers and chanting of mantras and use of diagrams of the universe known as yantras .
Worship of the image or icon of God/Goddess (murtis) is the most important part of Hindu worship. This can be done either at home or in the temple.

Hindu worship is primarily an individual act; it involves making personal offerings to the deity.

Worship involves repeating the names of favorite gods and goddesses (istadevatas), and repeating mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered as sacrifices/gifts to god.

Hindus have a shrine or personal worship room in their homes called a puja room where offerings are made and prayers are said. This room can be anything from a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity.

Visiting and worshipping temples is an integral part of Hindu worship. Alone or with the aid of temple priests who receive offerings and present these offerings to the gods. The gifts given to the gods become sacred through contact with their images or with their shrines, and may be received and used by worshipers as the grace (prasada) of the divine.

Hindu religious rites can be generally classified into three categories:

1. Nitya: These are rituals that are performed daily often at dawn and dusk, beginning often by purification. These consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities. For orthodox Hindus, dawn and dusk are greeted with recitation from the Rig Veda of the Gayatri Mantra for the sun. For many people, the only Sanskrit prayer they know is Gayatri. Each Hindu has 3 daily duties:

Revere the deities, respect ancestors and respect all beings.

2. Naimittika: These are rituals that occur only at certain times during the year.

Religion: HINDUISM SCRIPTURES

2005-10-28T10:14:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, HINDU SCRIPTURES: HINDU SCRIPTURES

The majority of Hindu scriptures are composed in the Sanskrit language. The morphology and linguistic philosophy of Sanskrit are sometimes claimed to be linked to study of the Vedas.
They are two types of sacred writings:
Sruti (Heard),
Smriti (Remembered).
Sruti Sacred texts
The Four Vedas: the most ancient Hinduism sacred text, the 4 Vedas are the pillar of Hinduism religion. ("Veda" means "Knowledge in Sanskrit). The four major works are gathering all the aspects of daily life:

• Rig Veda (Royal Knowledge) is the most important, covering divinities and ritual prayers. The oldest (1500 BC) and has 10'589 verses divided into ten mandalas or books, of which books two to seven are the core of the work. The hymns are the work of many authors or seers called 'rishis' such as Atri, Kanwa,Vashistha, Vishwamitra, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bharadwaja. The books are arranged according to the number of hymns they possess.

• Sama Veda (Knowledge of Chants): a liturgical collection of melodies 'saman', a book of hymns.

• Yajur Veda (Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals) treats the scientific branches and Sacrificial Rituals. Made to meet the demands of a ceremonial religion, it contains sacred formulas, invocations and spells muttered by the Hindu priests who performed the sacrificial rites.

Religion Universe: Hinduism, ORIGIN OF HINDUISM

2005-10-26T04:19:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, ORIGIN OF HINDUISM: "ORIGIN OF HINDUISM

The Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT)
Developed by F. Max Muller in 1848 (Victorian period) and by other research for more than 120 years, it became history of Hinduism, not only in the West but in India."
This theory is stating the beginning of Hinduism, from the time of invasion of India by lighter skinned Aryans around 1500 BCE.

AIT has been challenged by modern historians not only because of its racist and exclusive connotations but also due to other archaeological, linguistic and ethnological evidences, showing the Hinduism continuity.

Why AIT Is Challenged:

The concept of invading hordes of Aryans conquering northern India around 1500 BC arose in the nineteenth century for a variety of reasons.

Linguists had established that the north Indian, Iranian, and most

European languages were structurally related and belonged to the same family, which was given the name Indo-European.

A homeland was postulated and it was assumed that the residents of this homeland spoke a common language, called ``proto-Indo-European'' (PIE), which was the ancestor to the historically known ancient languages such as Sanskrit, Avestan, Greek, Latin, and soon. Based primarily on linguistic considerations, several theories were proposed according to which this homeland was likely to have been in southeastern Europe or Central Asia. By assigning an arbitrary period of 200 years to each of the several layers of the pre-Buddhist

Vedic literature, the period of around 1500 BC was arrived at for the entry of the Aryans into India.

This alleged Aryan invasion was then tied up with the mention of the horse in the Vedic literature by asserting that the invading Aryans brought horses and chariots with them. This hypothesis was considered proven by claiming that the domestication of the horse took place not too much before 1500 BC. It was assumed that the horse provided military advantage to the Aryans, which made it possible for them to conquer the indigenous inhabitants of India.

Religion: Hinduism, UNDERSTANDING HINDUISM

2005-10-25T13:31:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, UNDERSTANDING HINDUISM: "UNDERSTANDING HINDUISM

The Vedas tell us that the gods (deva in Sanskrit) reside within the mind. But since physical reality is also experienced as a construction of the mind, therefore, one may see the Vedic gods in the physical space and its relationships.

These conceptions led to the detailed exposition of the devas in yoga, tantra as well as in architecture and iconography. The Vedic way recognizes that reality is a synthesis of opposites. We are suspended between being and becoming, between hazy memories of the past and fears for the future.

Within each of us lie not only sublime thoughts but also avarice and greed. We are the battlefield of a struggle between the gods and demons. The opposites require an act of balance so that the individual's relationship to Truth is articulated only partly by means of abstract ideas, and it needs art in performance and representation to complete the picture.

The two poles of the approach to reality are provided by the Upanishadic mahāvākyas: I am Brahman or I am the Universe (aham brahmāsmi) and Not this, not this (neti, neti). These lead to two artistic styles: one rich and textured, the other spare and austere. One speaks of infinite possibility and structure (Brahman), the other of nothingness (śūnyatā).

Each of these is the ground of the other; within one lays the other in endless recursive details. This is the essence of the paradox taught in the Vedas to help one learn that one is not a thing, but a process. On the one hand are the maddeningly complex rituals, on the other the simplicity of dhyāna (meditation).

Both these styles are to be incorporated within the life process. The Western philological approach to the Vedas not only misses this understanding of the Vedas, it has misguided generations of scholars and laypersons into a simplistic view of Indian culture.

It sees Hinduism and Buddhism in dichotomous terms that appear absurd to those within the tradition. The Buddha himself affirmed on the basis of his own direct experience the existence of the various elements of the Vedic world view, including the existence of many hells, heavens, and various supernatural beings like devas, asuras (demons), and rākshasas.

The Buddha claimed to have seen these realms and beings with his divine sight, and he also claimed to have observed how sentient beings cycle through these diverse forms of existence in the interminable process of transmigration.

The Buddha, therefore, took for granted the Vedic cosmic geography wherein all these natural and supernatural beings lived. It is no wonder then that the anthology Subhāsitaratnakosha of Vidyākara (c. 1100) a Buddhist abbot at the monastery of Jagaddala in present-day Bangladesh,2 has 20 verses to the Buddha, but 73 to Śiva, and 40 to Visnu.

Religion: Hinduism, COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

2005-10-24T17:38:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, COMMON CHARACTERISTICS: "COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

It is possible to discern among the multiple forms of Hinduism several common characteristics of belief and practice:
� Existence of one Supreme Being: Brahman , the ultimate reality is uncreated, omnipotent, omnipresent and eternal.
� Existence of other Gods: representing different aspects of the supreme God. "

Hindus recognize the principle of feminine/masculine complementing each other. Each God is often associated with another consort based on this principle (Brahma/ Saraswati, Vishnu/ Lakshmi, Shiva/ Devi, Parvati)

Hindu Trinity:

Brahma: The Creator aspect of the divine. Creator of universe. Presented often with four head and arms with red skin. Linked often to Maya, symbol of eternal illusion. Avidya Maya is the ignorance and Vidya Maya is the liberating knowledge.
Vishnu: Vishnu's followers form one of the three main divisions of Hinduism. The one who preserves the universe. At times of society crisis in the past, Vishnu has appeared on earth in 9 different forms. He is most famously identified with His avatars, or incarnations of God, most especially Krishna and Rama. Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi is the Goddess of wealth and abundance. Vishnu's doctrine emphasizes the reciprocity of love. Vishnu is usually depicted as a four-armed male-form with new-cloud-like-blue skin, standing on a lotus flower, and holding four attributes.
Shiva : the destroyer or transcendent. Shiva is the supreme God of Shaivism, one of the three main branches of Hinduism. Shiva's consort is Devi, mother who comes in many different forms, one of whom is Kali, the goddess of death. Shiva movements provide the energy that drives the universe. The Creator and Destroyer of the Universe. Shiva is the protector (who wards off evil) and often associated with Ganges river tumbling from his hairs. Around his neck is a serpent representing Kundalini (the spiritual energy). He holds a trident in his left hand.

Belief in the theory of causality/Karma: Hinduism believes in Rebirth cycle (Samsara) and the idea that soul is eternal. Therefore a person is experiencing the results of his own actions through the rebirth cycle.

Religion: HINDUISM

2005-10-23T22:09:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Hinduism, HINDUISM: "HINDUISM
Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world, after Christianity and Islam. With around 940 million followers worldwide, 80% of the population of India, regard themselves as Hindus.
Hinduism , commonly called Sanatana Dharma (Everlasting religion or eternal way), is essentially and Indian phenomena. Hinduism is also called Vaidika Dharma (Religion of the Vedas).
Being both a religion and a way of life , Hinduism is characterized by a multitude of belief systems, practices and scriptures. Therefore Hinduism includes a complete approach to life like: social classes, family, food/diet, politics, earning a living etc."

Having an origin in the ancient Indo-Aryan Vedic culture, Hinduism is among the oldest major world religions.

According to some historians the origins can be dated back to more than 3000 years BC (If is not 8000 years BC).

‘Hindu' is derived from the name of River Indus, which flows 1800 miles from Tibet through Kashmir and Pakistan to the sea.

In the old times the river Indus was called the ‘Sindhu'. The Persians who came to India called the river ‘Hindu', the population ‘Hindus' (Of Hindustan) and their religion ‘Hinduism'.

Hinduism is not a single unified religion and doesn't have a founder, one core doctrine neither prophets nor a single teacher. Being also very accommodating versus other cultures and religions, Hinduism is rather an approach to the universe, and a way of living in the universe. Hinduism is a spirit of tolerance as said in Rig Veda : “God is one, but men called it by different names”. Mahatma Gandhi the great Hindu of twenty century compares it to a tree: “Even as a tree has a single trunk, but many branches and leaves”.

Religion : Buddhism, POPULATION

2005-10-21T04:52:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, POPULATION: "Buddhist Populations

Top 10 countries with the largest population of Buddhists"

Country
Number
of Buddhists

China
102,000,000

Japan
89,650,000

Thailand
55,480,000

Vietnam
49,690,000

Myanmar
41,610,000

Sri Lanka
12,540,000

South Korea
10,920,000

Taiwan
9,150,000

Cambodia
9,130,000

India
7,000,000

Top 10 countries with the highest proportion of Buddhists

Country
Percent

Thailand
95%

Cambodia
90%

Myanmar
88%

Bhutan
75%

Sri Lanka
70%

Tibet
65%

Laos
60%

Vietnam
55%

Japan
50%

Macau
45%

Taiwan
43%

Religion : Buddhism, THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION

2005-10-20T04:18:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION: "THE BASICS OF BUDDHIST MEDITATION

Buddhism began by encouraging its practitioners to engage in smrti (sati) or mindfulness, that is, developing a full consciousness of all about you and within you -- whether seated in a special posture, or simply going about one's life. This is the kind of meditation that Buddha himself engaged in under the bodhi tree, and is referred to in the seventh step of the eightfold path. "
Soon, Buddhist monks expanded and formalized their understanding of meditation. The bases for all meditation, as it was understood even in the earliest years of Buddhism, are shamatha and vipashyana.

Shamatha is often translated as calm abiding or peacefulness. It is the development of tranquility that is a prerequisite to any further development. Vipashyana is clear seeing or special insight, and involves intuitive cognition of suffering, impermanence, and egolessness.

Only after these forms were perfected does one go on to the more heavy-duty kinds of meditation. Samadhi is concentration or one-pointed meditation. It involves intense focusing of consciousness.

Samadhi brings about the four dhyanas, meaning absorptions. Buddha refers to samadhi and the dhyanas in the eighth step of the eightfold path, and again at his death. Dhyana is rendered as Jhana in Pali, Ch'an in Chinese, Son in Korean, and Zen in Japanese, and has, in those cultures, become synonymous with meditation as a whole.

Religion: Buddhism, THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE

2005-10-19T06:03:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE: "THE BUDDAH AND HIS MESSAGE

Vesak is the day marking the birth, enlightenment, and passing away of the Buddha, which according to traditional accounts all occurred on the full-moon day of May. Ever since the fifth century B.C., the Buddha has been the Light of Asia, a spiritual teacher whose teaching has shed its radiance over an area that once extended from the Kabul Valley in the west to Japan in the east, from Sri Lanka in the south to Siberia in the north. The Buddha's sublime personality has given birth to a whole civilization guided by lofty ethical and humanitarian ideals, to a vibrant spiritual tradition that has ennobled the lives of millions with a vision of man's highest potentials. His graceful figure is the centerpiece of magnificent achievements in all the arts -- in literature, painting, sculpture, and architecture. His gentle, inscrutable smile has blossomed into vast libraries of scriptures and treatises attempting to fathom his profound wisdom. Today, as Buddhism becomes better known all over the globe, it is attracting an ever-expanding circle of followers and has already started to make an impact on Western culture. Hence it is most fitting that the United Nations should reserve one day each year to pay tribute to this man of mighty intellect and boundless heart, whom millions of people in many countries look upon as their master and guide.

The Birth of the Buddha

The first event in the life of the Buddha commemorated by Vesak is his birth. In this part of my talk I want to consider the birth of the Buddha, not in bare historical terms, but through the lens of Buddhist tradition -- an approach that will reveal more clearly what this event means for Buddhists themselves. To view the Buddha's birth through the lens of Buddhist tradition, we must first consider the question, "What is a Buddha?" As is widely known, the word "Buddha" is not a proper name but an honorific title meaning "the Enlightened One" or "the Awakened One." The title is bestowed on the Indian sage Siddhartha Gautama, who lived and taught in northeast India in the fifth century B.C. From the historical point of view, Gautama is the Buddha, the founder of the spiritual tradition known as Buddhism.

However, from the standpoint of classical Buddhist doctrine, the word "Buddha" has a wider significance than the title of one historical figure. The word denotes, not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person -- an exemplar -- of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. Just as the title "American President" refers not just to Bill Clinton, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency, so the title "Buddha" is in a sense a "spiritual office," applying to all who have attained the state of Buddhahood. The Buddha Gautama, then, is simply the latest member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

To understand this point more clearly requires a short excursion into Buddhist cosmology. The Buddha teaches that the universe is without any discoverable beginning in time: there is no first point, no initial moment of creation. Through beginningless time, world systems arise, evolve, and then disintegrate, followed by new world systems subject to the same law of growth and decline. Each world system consists of numerous planes of existence inhabited by sentient beings similar in most respects to ourselves. Besides the familiar human and animal realms, it contains heavenly planes ranged above our own, realms of celestial bliss, and infernal planes below our own, dark realms of pain and misery. The beings dwelling in these realms pass from life to life in an unbroken process of rebirth called samsara, a word which means "the wandering on." This aimless wandering from birth to birth is driven by our own ignorance and craving, and the particular form any rebirth takes is determined by our karma, our good and bad deeds, our volitional actions of body, speech, and thought. An impersonal moral law governs this process, ensuring that good deeds bring a pleasant rebirth, and bad deeds a painful one.

In all planes of existence life is impermanent, subject to aging, decay, and death. Even life in the heavens, though long and blissful, does not last forever. Every existence eventually comes to an end, to be followed by a rebirth elsewhere. Therefore, when closely examined, all modes of existence within samsara reveal themselves as flawed, stamped with the mark of imperfection. They are unable to offer a stable, secure happiness and peace, and thus cannot deliver a final solution to the problem of suffering.

However, beyond the conditioned spheres of rebirth, there is also a realm or state of perfect bliss and peace, of complete spiritual freedom, a state that can be realized right here and now even in the midst of this imperfect world. This state is called Nirvana (in Pali, Nibbana), the "going out" of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion. There is also a path, a way of practice, that leads from the suffering of samsara to the bliss of Nirvana; from the round of ignorance, craving, and bondage, to unconditioned peace and freedom.

For long ages this path will be lost to the world, utterly unknown, and thus the way to Nirvana will be inaccessible. From time to time, however, there arises within the world men who, by his own unaided effort and keen intelligence, finds the lost path to deliverance. Having found it, he follows it through and fully comprehends the ultimate truth about the world. Then he returns to humanity and teaches this truth to others, making known once again the path to the highest bliss. The person who exercises this function is a Buddha.

A Buddha is thus not merely an Enlightened One, but is above all an Enlightener, a World Teacher. His function is to rediscover, in an age of spiritual darkness, the lost path to Nirvana, to perfect spiritual freedom, and teach this path to the world at large. Thereby others can follow in his steps and arrive at the same experience of emancipation that he himself achieved. A Buddha is not unique in attaining Nirvana. All those who follow the path to its end realize the same goal. Such people are called arahants, "worthy ones," because they have destroyed all ignorance and craving. The unique role of a Buddha is to rediscover the Dharma, the ultimate principle of truth, and to establish a "dispensation" or spiritual heritage to preserve the teaching for future generations. So long as the teaching is available, those who encounter it and enter the path can arrive at the goal pointed to by the Buddha as the supreme good.

To qualify as a Buddha, a World Teacher, an aspirant must prepare himself over an inconceivably long period of time spanning countless lives. During these past lives, the future Buddha is referred to as a bodhisattva, an aspirant to the full enlightenment of Buddhahood. In each life the bodhisattva must train himself, through altruistic deeds and meditative effort, to acquire the qualities essential to a Buddha. According to the teaching of rebirth, at birth our mind is not a blank slate but brings along all the qualities and tendencies we have fashioned in our previous lives. Thus to become a Buddha requires the fulfillment, to the ultimate degree, of all the moral and spiritual qualities that reach their climax in Buddhahood. These qualities are called påramis or påramitås, transcendent virtues or perfections. Different Buddhist traditions offer slightly different lists of the påramis. In the Theravada tradition they are said to be tenfold: generosity, moral conduct, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, determination, loving-kindness, and equanimity. In each existence, life after life through countless cosmic aeons, a bodhisattva must cultivate these sublime virtues in all their manifold aspects.

Religion: Buddhism, MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM

2005-10-18T05:41:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM: "MAIN BRANCHES of BUDDHISM

There are many schools and practices in Buddhism. They can be roughly grouped into three types:
Theravanda or Southern Buddhism"
Theravanda (Doctrine of the Elders) is the dominant school of Buddhism in most of Southeast Asia.
It's followed by 100 million in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos.

Its scriptures are preserved in Pali, an ancient India language closely related to Sanskrit. Theravanda (lesser vehicle) is the only surviving representative of the historical Nikaya branch.

The Pali Canon, is the collection of agamas or nikaya sutras.

The nikaya sutras are considered to be the oldest of the surviving types of Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Religion: Buddhism, UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM

2005-10-17T03:03:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM: "UNIVERSE AND BUDDHISM

Sakyamuni has said: It is so large that it has no exterior, and so small that it has no interior.

It means that at the Tathagata level, in terms of largeness, you cant see the edge of the universe, and in terms of smallness, you cant see the smallest microscopic particle of matter."

Religion : PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM

2005-10-14T22:18:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM: "PRINCIPLES OF BUDDHISM

The Triple Gem
Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the Triple Gem, Three Jewels or Triple Jewel.
These are:
The Buddha: Awakened one, enlightened one. The original nature of the heart; the attainment of Nirvana.
The Dharma (Dhamma): The body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The nature of reality. "
The Sangha: Community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. Also could be translated as awakened community.
It is impossible to escape one's karma (The universal principle of cause and effect, action and reaction which governs all life).

The one, who is seeking to become enlightened, commits by pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before.

Religion: Buddhism, BUDDHA

2005-10-14T04:40:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, BUDDHA: "BUDDHA

Siddhartha Gotama was born into a royal family in the Terai lowlands near the foothills of the Himalayas just inside the borders of modern-day Nepal around 6 BCE.

He was born the son of a Rajan (King, Chieftan) of the Sakya (Lion) clan of the Kshatriya, or warrior caste in Kapikvastri on the Indian-Nepalese border. Sakyamuni, means �the sage of the Sakyas�."
Accounts of his life were passed down by oral tradition and first written a few hundred years after his death. Therefore, they are a great number of legends that surround his birth and existence:

“Queen Maya (Sakyamuni‘s mother) was going to her father's home to prepare for the birth with the help of her mother. She stepped off her chariot in the Lumbini Gardens and held the branch of a flowering tree to rest. In that instant, Siddhartha emerged from her right side without any help. The infant walked seven steps each in four directions and lotus flowers sprouted from where his foot touched the earth. Seven days later Queen Maya died.”

Religion: KABBALAH CENTER

2005-10-14T04:39:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, KABBALAH CENTER: "KABBALAH CENTER

Founded by Philip Berg in Los Angeles , in 1984, and run by him and his sons Yehuda and Michael, with more than fifty branches worldwide.
A modern revival of Kabbalah, Its message is mainly based on the reading of Zohar, of which an original version in twenty-three volumes is sold by the center. According to Berg, knowledge of aramean is not necessary. Apparently, it is not necessary of to understand the words, but they should be pronounced correctly."

Religion Universe: Site Map

2005-10-13T14:09:00.000-07:00

Religion : Site Map: "SITE MAP:
Home (Defintions Of Religion) :
Definition of Religions , A Brief Chronology of World Religions, World Religions or belief systems by number of adherents, Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others, Ecumenism and Interfaith pluralism "
Buddhism:
Buddha, Principles of Buddhism or Triple Gem, Universe and Buddhism, Main Branches of Buddhism, Buddah and his Message, Buddhist Meditation, population

Christianity:
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES : Trinity, God, Canon, Jesus Christ, Apostolic Tradition, Virgin Mary, Saints

PRACTICES: Baptism, Communion , Catechism, Eucharist, Icon, Prayer

CELEBRATIONS: Christmas, Easter, Pentecost

CATHOLICISM (CATHOLIC RELIGION): Roman Catholic Church , Eastern Catholic Churches

PROTESTANTISM (PROTESTANT RELIGION): Introduction, Reformation, Reformed/Presbyterian Churches, Anglican Communion, Baptists, Evangelicals, Lutheranism , Methodist , Pentecostals , Quakerism

ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY: Introduction, Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodox Churches

ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT (OIKUMENE)

Hinduism:
Common Characteristics, Understanding Hinduism, Origin of Hinduism, Hindu Scriptures, Worship ( Puja ), The Four Goals and Stages of Life, population

Islam:
The Five Pillars of Islam , Muhammad (PBUH), The Qur'an (Koran), Sunnah, Islamic Law, Islam Subdivisions (Sunnites, Shi'as), Sufism, 99 Names of Allah, Population

Judaism:
The Legacy From The Past, Observances Of Judaism, Jewish Mysticism , Scriptures, The Ten Commandments, population

Taoism or Daoism:
History of Daoism, Dao, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Cosmogony, Yin and Yang , Daoist Immortalism, Understanding Dao and Establishing Virtue, Today and Tommorow

Traditional and Modern religions:
Animism, Paganism, Totemism, Shamanism, Spiritism, Wicca , Kabbalah Center , Others

Articles:
ECONOMY , EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY , RELIGION & SPIRITUALITY

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Religion:WICCA

2005-10-13T04:35:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, WICCA: "WICCA

Wicca is one fastest growing religions in U.S. Is projected to be the 3 rd largest religion, by 2012 in U.S. http://www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/4/emw231351.htm
Wicca is a Neopagan religion that can be found in many English-speaking countries. Originally founded by Gerald Gardner a British civil servant, in the 1940s, and openly revealed in 1954. Since its founding, various related Wiccan traditions have evolved, the original being Gardnerian Wicca.
A religion derived from pre-Christian times (Celtic), which practices a benevolent reverence for nature, and recognizes two deities, variously viewed as Mother; Father, Goddess; God, Female; Male, etc.; its practitioners are called Wiccans, Wiccas, or witches. Since there is no central authority to propagate dogma, the beliefs and practices of Wiccans vary significantly."

Religion: SHAMANISM

2005-10-13T04:34:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, SHAMANISM: "SHAMANISM

Shamanism being the religion of Native Americans, Shamanism (originated from a word in Siberia by Tungus) is a range of traditional beliefs and practices to be applied to all medicine men and women of indigenous cultures whose practice includes astral projection."that involve the ability to control the weather, divination, the interpretation of dreams, diagnose, cure, and sometimes cause human suffering by traversing the World axis and forming relationship with spirits (gaining control).

Religion: CHRISTIANITY

2005-10-12T00:33:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Christianity, CHRISTIANITY: "CHRISTIANITY
Christianity is the largest religion in the world. T he most popular religion in the world, Christianity has well over two billion followers.
Christianity was founded in Palestine by the followers of Jesus , in the 1st century AD. One of the world's major religions, it predominates in Europe and the Americas, where it has been a powerful historical force and cultural influence, but it also claims adherents in virtually every country of the world. To be a Christian is to acknowledge Jesus Christ as a savior."
Christians believe that Jesus Christ was the Son of God and that:
God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from the consequences of its sins (i.e. its non-good behaviour, or its disobedience to God)
Jesus was fully human, and experienced this world in the same way as other human beings of his time
Jesus was tortured and gave his life on the Cross (At the Crucifixion )
Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixion ( the Resurrection )
Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament
Christians believe that there is only one God , but that this one God consists of three persons ( Trinity ):
God the Father
God the Son
The Holy Spirit
Christians worship in Churches .
The Christian holy book is the Old and New Testament of the Bible. Christian creed , based on the New Testament , consists of the essential doctrines, or beliefs, of Christianity.
Christian festivals such as Easter and Christmas, play a major role in the Western calendar
The Christian history is focused on the life, death and resurrection of one person, Jesus Christ . In the centuries following the life of Jesus, Church leaders and theologians strove to express their beliefs with ever greater precision.

The essence of being a Christian is not to know about Christ but to be another Christ : "Me in Christ", in His Mystical Body, in His Church, and "Christ in me", by faith, by grace, freely, I no longer live, but Christ lives in me (Ga.2:20... John 15)... to live on earth the glorious adventure of a Christian in Christ, of another Christ, doing wonderful woks, and to end up in eternal heaven, full of joy and peace and love for ever and ever.
Christianity was originally a movement of a few Jews who accepted Jesus as the Messiah, but the movement quickly became predominantly gentile. The early church was shaped by Peter and Paul and other early Christian missionaries and theologians; it was persecuted under the Roman Empire but recognized by Emperor Constantine in 313

Religion: TOTEMISM

2005-10-11T01:10:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, TOTEMISM: "TOTEMISM

Totemism is a religious belief that is frequently associated with shamanistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a person or, more likely, a clan.
In Australia, there were 270 languages when the Europeans arrived; their religion is said to be Totemism. Totemism involves a relationship between a person or group and a natural object specially united with the gods. For example, a 'mountain' is where the gods dwell, and that 'mountain' is the totem of a group; a 'monkey' is united with a god, and a person or group honours that monkey to honour and influence that god. "

Religion: JUDAISM

2005-10-10T04:04:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Judaism, JUDAISM: "JUDAISM
Judaism is the religion and culture of the Jewish people and the first recorded monotheistic faith. The tenets and history of Judaism constitute the historical foundation of other religions, including Christianity and Islam. The 3 faiths recognize Abraham as the Patriarch."

Although Jews comprise only about 0.2% of the human race, 18 million, Jewish influence on the world has been vast, far more than their numbers would indicate.

Three Facts:

Judaism espouses belief in a monotheistic God , who is creator of the universe and who leads His people, the Jews, by speaking through prophets. Judaism is, in essence, the Law of God given to Moses .
Fundamental to Judaism is the belief that the people of Israel are God's chosen people, who must serve as a light for other nations. God made a covenant first with Abraham around 2000 BC, and then renewed it with Isaac, Jacob, and Moses . This means that Judaism is a religion that focuses on the group and the group's needs, rather than on individuals. Individuals are important only as their actions affect the group.
The expectancy of a Messiah who will bring universal peace and Jerusalem will be his capital center. Jews believe that the human condition can be improved, that the letter and the spirit of the Torah must be followed, and that a Messiah will eventually bring the world to a state of paradise.
The word of God (G-d) is revealed in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament), especially in that part known as the Torah . The Torah also contains, according to rabbinic tradition, a total of 613 biblical commandments, including the Ten Commandments, which are explicated in the Talmud. Main Scriptures: Tanakh, Torah, Talmud, Mishna

Religion Universe: Hinduism, HINDUISM

2005-10-09T01:03:00.000-07:00

Religion : Major Site on Religions

2005-10-08T14:03:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Major Site on Religions: "There is also a variety of �objective� or scientific attempt to study and explain Religion:
Historical, archeological , and literary approaches to Religion ( Max M�ller )
Anthropological approaches to Religion ( John Lubbock )
Sociological approaches to Religion ( Auguste Comte)
Psychological approaches to Religion( William James )
Philosophical approaches to Religion ( Immanuel Kant, Karl Marx )
Neuroscientific approaches to Religion and
Cognitive psychological approaches to Religion(Pascal Boyer)

We hope you will enjoy this site. We have tried to provide you with Descriptions, overviews of various World Religions: Concise descriptions, articles and resources to understand several world religions, spirituality and ethical systems.
The first page of each religion will give a simple overview of a religion .
This site will expand in the future to include other religions. You can use it for comparative religion. Understanding Western religions or Easterns religions.
The main religions actually covered are (in Alphabetical order):"
Buddhism:
Buddha, Principles of Buddhism or Triple Gem, Universe and Buddhism, Main Branches of Buddhism, Buddah and his Message, Buddhist Meditation, population

Christianity:
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES : Trinity, God, Canon, Jesus Christ, Apostolic Tradition, Virgin Mary, Saints

PRACTICES: Baptism, Communion , Catechism, Eucharist, Icon, Prayer

CELEBRATIONS: Christmas, Easter, Pentecost

CATHOLICISM (CATHOLIC RELIGION): Roman Catholic Church , Eastern Catholic Churches

PROTESTANTISM (PROTESTANT RELIGION): Introduction, Reformation, Reformed/Presbyterian Churches, Anglican Communion, Baptists, Evangelicals, Lutheranism , Methodist , Pentecostals , Quakerism

ORTHODOX CHRISTIANITY: Introduction, Eastern Orthodoxy , Oriental Orthodox Churches

ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT (OIKUMENE)

Hinduism:
Common Characteristics, Understanding Hinduism, Origin of Hinduism, Hindu Scriptures, Worship ( Puja ), The Four Goals and Stages of Life, population

Islam:
The Five Pillars of Islam , Muhammad (PBUH), The Qur'an (Koran), Sunnah, Islamic Law, Islam Subdivisions (Sunnites, Shi'as), Sufism, 99 Names of Allah, Population

Judaism:
The Legacy From The Past, Observances Of Judaism, Jewish Mysticism , Scriptures, The Ten Commandments, population

Taoism or Daoism:
History of Daoism, Dao, Laozi, Zhuangzi, Cosmogony, Buddhist MeditationYin and Yang , Daoist Immortalism, Understanding Dao and Establishing Virtue, Today and Tommorow

Also some Traditional and Modern religions: Animism, Paganism, Totemism, Shamanism, Spiritism, Wicca to name a few. And our Articles updated on regular basis as our Religion News !!.

Religion Universe: Buddhism, BUDDHISM

2005-10-08T04:28:00.001-07:00

Religion Universe: Buddhism, BUDDHISM: "BUDDHISM
Buddhism is a religion and a philosophy.
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world, after Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.
The word comes from 'budhi', 'to awaken'.
It has its origins about 2,500 years ago when Siddhartha Gotama (Sanskrit: Siddhartha Gautama), known as the Buddha (also: Tathagata, 'the one who has come thus'), was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of 35 while sitting under a Bodhi tree ('tree of wisdom').
Buddhist morality is deeply rooted by the principles of harmlessness and moderation (The Middle Way). "

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, ANIMISM

2005-10-08T04:28:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Traditional Modern, ANIMISM: "Animism is the belief that personalized supernatural beings (or souls) inhabit all objects and govern their existence. Is a traditional religious attitude, in Africa . In an extended sense is the belief in the existence of soul or spirits apart from matter.
'Everything is conscious' or 'everything has a soul'."

Religion Universe: Taoism, TAOISM

2005-10-07T21:21:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Taoism, TAOISM: "TAOISM
Daoism is China's indigenous traditional religion; its name stems from 'Dao' being its highest object of faith.
The core of its belief is that by engaging in a process of Cultivation and Refinement, man can attain to a state of Immortality.
Daoist religion reveres Laozi as its Founder; its primary scripture is Laozi's Book of Dao and its Virtue.
Daoism has formed itself gradually over the ages, building upon the ancient Chinese worship of Heaven and Ancestors as its foundation, taking Daoist philosophy as its primary ideological source, absorbing concepts from the Yin-Yang, Mohist, Confucianist and Legalist schools, and adhering to the essential path of cultivation of the Magic and Immortality and Huang-Lao traditions.
Since its formation in the middle of the Eastern Han dynasty (25 - 220 AD), Daoist religion has undergone phases of formation, reform, flourishing and development, division into sects, and gradual decline, over a period of almost two thousand years. "

Religion: Islam, ISLAM

2005-10-07T12:12:00.000-07:00

Religion Universe: Islam, ISLAM: "ISLAM
Islam is the second largest religion in the world, after Christianity. With around 1.4 billion followers worldwide ( Muslims are divided in two major branches: Sunni 940 million and Shia 120 million).
Islam is the last of the three Abrahamic religions, after Judaism and Christianity. As Sarah Had no son, Abraham took Hagar for second wife. According to Qu'ran, Ishmael , the son of Abraham and Hagar, went to the place where Mecca was. His descendants became Muslims.
Islam is over 1300 years old and has appeared first in Arabia (VII century). Before Islam , the Arabic Peninsula was populated by Bedouins, warring tribes, and multiple religions: Polytheism the religion of Arabs leaving in the cities; Christians and Jewish communities."